tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-82890519544187093262024-03-09T00:45:01.547+05:00Learning GeologyA Geology Outreach WebsiteMuhammad Qasimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09422933048834961238noreply@blogger.comBlogger462125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8289051954418709326.post-83099487461782679432022-05-10T20:17:00.006+05:002022-05-10T20:21:23.304+05:00Geological Data and the Future of Agriculture<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN" style="color: #151b26; font-family: Roboto; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFioVMWl517FNgbNl9UPwF5HGHY3epYYzziVhHgYY1NA__itqW5OfrrBqD7ByjLsW2xR-ScBAZ9TnhGcJ_BcWntQnZX1Fs9gfm2N_wNXIwwmOHjSFkyyIkzHg_FTMPPnXsaWBTsHqwgo2r_xv2T5J0NPa8aTJxCgGiea9XuADyQcGeIYBm7oIy2OR5KA/s610/Picture1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="457" data-original-width="610" height="423" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFioVMWl517FNgbNl9UPwF5HGHY3epYYzziVhHgYY1NA__itqW5OfrrBqD7ByjLsW2xR-ScBAZ9TnhGcJ_BcWntQnZX1Fs9gfm2N_wNXIwwmOHjSFkyyIkzHg_FTMPPnXsaWBTsHqwgo2r_xv2T5J0NPa8aTJxCgGiea9XuADyQcGeIYBm7oIy2OR5KA/w563-h423/Picture1.png" width="563" /></a></div><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Roboto; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto;">Image Source: </span></b><span lang="EN"><a href="https://unsplash.com/photos/xDLEUTWCZdc"><b><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Roboto; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto;">https://unsplash.com/photos/xDLEUTWCZdc</span></b></a></span><b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Roboto; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<h1 align="center" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;"><a name="_vu0ejvu6ooy9"></a><span lang="EN">Geological Data and the Future of
Agriculture<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">In our modern world, change is everywhere. The
ongoing COVID pandemic has altered life for the vast majority of global
citizens, for starters. Thanks in large part to human activities and behavior,
climate change is rampant, and its effects can be seen across multiple
disciplines.</span> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">The geological impacts of climate change are
wide-reaching, and there’s myriad evidence of the phenomenon across the
geological record. Rising global temperatures and high CO2 concentrations
directly impact ocean levels and can cause irreparable harm to both marine and
terrestrial ecosystems. The global food supply is also reeling from the effects
of climate change, and the future of agriculture hangs in the balance.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">The good news is that, when it comes to
agriculture, there's plenty to learn from geological data. The various types of
geologic data collected across history include geophysical surveys, chemical
analyses of groundwater and soil, and <a href="http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2017/02/earthquake-precursors-signs-before.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">earthquake location data</span></a>. With that data in
hand, geology enthusiasts, farmers, and consumers alike can make more informed
decisions about agriculture moving forward. </span> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Here’s what you need to know about the global
efforts to address climate issues including water scarcity and fresh food
access, with a little help from geologic data. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h2 style="line-height: 150%;"><a name="_cnpno0jt2oau"></a><span lang="EN">Climate
Change, Farming, and the Geologic Record<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">From a geological perspective, climate change
is nothing new, yet it looks much different in the 21st century. According to <a href="https://jgs.lyellcollection.org/content/178/1/jgs2020-239"><span style="color: #1155cc;">the Geological Society of London</span></a>, current CO2
levels are at the highest levels in at least the past 3 million years. In
addition, “the current speed of human-induced CO2 change and warming is nearly
without precedent in the entire geological record.”</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">It’s clear that we’re at a tipping point in
terms of climate change, and no industry is unaffected. Once a fringe concept,
sustainability is now at the forefront of many global minds, and promoting
sustainable agriculture is of crucial importance. Modern farmers currently face
the daunting task of keeping crop yields high without harming the environment.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">In an effort to support healthy soil, global
farmers collect relevant soil data using a variety of methods and technology.
Whether sourced via ground penetrating radar (GPR), electromagnetic induction
(EMI), or another method altogether, measurements are used to determine soil
attributes and features, as well as to detect any contaminants that may be
present.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Once contaminants are detected, farmers are
then tasked with finding the origin and eliminating it. In many cases, polluted
groundwater is the culprit. Contaminated groundwater can cause detrimental harm
to the surrounding environment, including agriculture fields, but data
collection may help mitigate some of the damage.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h2><a name="_cageh34ub7ff"></a><span lang="EN">Using Data to Detect Pollutants<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">There may be a variety of <a href="http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2022/01/what-are-groundwater-contaminants-how.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">potential groundwater contaminants</span></a> depending
on a farm’s location, including agricultural chemicals, and scientific tests
can help determine the true cause. Yet the work doesn’t end there, and
contaminated groundwater may still pose a hazard to humans and the natural
environment years after the initial pollution event. Data collection is thus a
long-term effort for farmers and residents in areas affected by polluted
groundwater.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">In the town of Libby, Montana, for instance,
the Environmental Protection Agency discovered the dangerous chemical
pentachlorophenol in a resident’s well water in 1979. Lumber and sawmill
companies in the area were determined to be the source, and clean-up efforts
commenced. Subsequent tests found additional contaminants, however, and <a href="https://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/SiteProfiles/index.cfm?fuseaction=second.Cleanup&id=0800412#bkground"><span style="color: #1155cc;">safety reviews are still conducted every five years</span></a>
in an effort to keep residents safe. Groundwater sourced outside the city
limits of Libby remains questionable, potentially impacting agricultural
production in the region. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h2 style="line-height: 150%;"><a name="_3ra5jkudjjfi"></a><span lang="EN">The
Agricultural Applications of Geologic Data<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Today’s advanced technology allows us to
collect more data than ever before and centralize that data in order to extract
meaningful insights. No matter how much data you have at your fingertips,
however, it’s not necessarily worth much if you can’t make practical use of
that information. Turning raw data into interpreted data takes everyone
involved in the process, from geologists and social scientists to the farmers
who understand how to best apply that data to their advantage.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Consumer trends are also an important part of
agriculture, as the demand for certain products and foods can shift
dramatically over time. By looking at data related to consumer grocery shopping
habits, researchers may be able to identify problem areas, like where there may
be too much or too little of a particular type of produce available in a
geographic location, for instance.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Around the world, food deserts are becoming
more prevalent in both rural and urban areas, even in developed countries. The
Annie E. Casey Foundation reports that, within the U.S., <a href="https://www.aecf.org/blog/exploring-americas-food-deserts#:"><span style="color: #1155cc;">6.2% of the population lives in an area with limited
access to fresh food</span></a> — also known as a food desert. Going forward,
the ability to optimize agriculture data will be a crucial factor in adjusting
to growing populations and rising urbanization.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Healthcare professionals are even getting in
on the action, by collecting patient data that can be used in agricultural
applications. In increasing numbers, doctors are now screening for various
social determinants of health, notably food insecurity, <a href="https://thepapergown.zocdoc.com/why-more-doctors-are-asking-patients-where-they-buy-groceries/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">asking patients about where they buy groceries</span></a>
and how easy it is to get to the grocery store. Among other useful data, social
screenings allow researchers to get a better look at a population’s overall
ability to meet basic needs. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Data related to social demographics can be
used in tandem with geological data in order to address gaps in the realm of
agriculture. As an example, today’s socially conscious young people often find
themselves <a href="https://onlinedegrees.unr.edu/blog/youth-environmental-activism/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">at the intersection of technology and climate concerns</span></a>.
Young people can be a catalyst for change when given the opportunity and tools
to do so. In this way, geological and environmental data can engage young
people in research, opening up questions about the future of agriculture and
paving the way toward a prosperous future.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h2 style="line-height: 150%;"><a name="_mdq5bjuyobov"></a><span lang="EN">Final
Thoughts<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Among its important lessons, geology teaches
us that change is constant when it comes to the Earth’s climate. In large part
due to the actions of humans, the world is changing at a rapid pace, but
geological data may offer solutions.</span></p>
<p>It’s an exciting time for those interested in
geoscience, as the practical applications of geological data can no longer be
ignored. Indeed, the very future of agriculture may depend on geological data,
as well as our ability to make the necessary changes to ensure a future where
there’s plenty of healthy food, and no one goes hungry. </p><p><br /></p><p><i><b><span lang="EN" style="background: white; color: #555555; line-height: 18.4px;">Contributed by Indiana Lee:</span></b><span lang="EN" style="background: white; color: #555555; line-height: 18.4px;"> Indiana Lee is a journalist from the Pacific Northwest with a passion for covering workplace issues, environmental protection, social justice, and more. when she is not writing you can find her deep in the mountains with her two dogs. follow her work on <span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><a href="https://indianaleewrites.contently.com/" target="_blank"><span style="color: #dd5137; text-transform: none;">contently</span></a></span>, or reach her at <span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><a href="mailto:indianaleewrites@gmail.com" target="_blank"><span style="color: #dd5137; text-transform: none;">indianaleewrites@gmail.com</span></a></span></span></i></p>Muhammad Qasimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09422933048834961238noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8289051954418709326.post-18225870180626833052022-01-31T09:54:00.001+05:002022-01-31T09:56:35.622+05:00What are Groundwater Contaminants & How to Reduce Them <p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEi7XMbJy_niZpixWCqJ12Yr_ZpAqxTssUmKzLrPslzT5WX6UM2v6SQvDSyW6i_Kijg1T4tFrXVJ-Y-1r_UhkeZzUOT4tPoGPhMFN3bR6LN2lr_WKL0WNzw4jRtf9CUF7_BI5ypHqgqP0K-6ScErY6CuLRKYpEjDU1B1p5CXcdGLowhvjwm8xO-oAkqxEw" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="635" data-original-width="953" height="405" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEi7XMbJy_niZpixWCqJ12Yr_ZpAqxTssUmKzLrPslzT5WX6UM2v6SQvDSyW6i_Kijg1T4tFrXVJ-Y-1r_UhkeZzUOT4tPoGPhMFN3bR6LN2lr_WKL0WNzw4jRtf9CUF7_BI5ypHqgqP0K-6ScErY6CuLRKYpEjDU1B1p5CXcdGLowhvjwm8xO-oAkqxEw=w608-h405" width="608" /></a></div><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Roboto; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto;">Image Source: </span></b><span lang="EN"><a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/sewage-pipe-polluted-water-3465090/"><b><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Roboto; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto;">pixabay.com</span></b></a></span></p><p>Water.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">It’s probably one of the simplest things in
our day-to-day lives. Yet it is also one of the most important. The human body
is nearly 70% water and without it, we wouldn’t last very long. Of all the
water on Earth, only about 3% is drinkable fresh water, and of that only about
1.2% is accessible for human consumption.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Some of the accessible water that we depend
upon for survival is groundwater. This is water stored in <a href="http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2015/12/where-does-groundwater-reside.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">natural pools underground called aquifers</span></a>.
Nearly 50% of the population of the United States gets their drinking water
from a groundwater aquifer.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Given this, ensuring that the groundwater we
have available remains clean and free of contaminants is a top priority.
However, it can be much harder to detect and clean than many of us realize.
Addressing groundwater contamination and working towards reducing it is one of
the most important aspects of preserving our ability to survive on this planet.
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h2 style="line-height: 150%;"><a name="_cnpno0jt2oau"></a><span lang="EN">Understanding
Groundwater<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN"><a href="https://www.groundwater.org/get-informed/basics/groundwater.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">Where does our groundwater come from</span></a>? It might
seem like a relatively simple question, but the groundwater supply that we
currently enjoy comes from thousands of years of natural processes. In essence,
groundwater accumulates as water slowly makes its way through the soil, and it
only stops when it reaches a solid material that it cannot pass through. As
more and more water accumulates and is pooled up by the impassible layer,
aquifers form.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">There are several professionals that study
different facets of this process. They range from hydrologists who specifically
study the movement of water in a given system to geologists who study different
components of rocks. Someone who specifically specializes in groundwater
collection and management <a href="http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/p/blog-page_90.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">might be considered a hydrogeologist</span></a> because
they study the interplay between water and rocks (along with the many other
materials water passes through).</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">There is a lot that goes into being a
successful hydrogeologist. Professionals may work towards solving difficult
problems such as:</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Can the aquifer support more
development and housing in a certain area?<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Will we lose surface water if
certain changes are made?<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Is waste water mixing with
drinking water?<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">What chemicals are currently in
the water? Do they come from natural sources or are they from an anthropogenic
source?<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">How much water reclamation can be
expected in the aquifer in a given year? What about during a prolonged drought?<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h2 style="line-height: 150%;"><a name="_kbls16ltn5d3"></a><span lang="EN">Groundwater
Contaminants<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN"><a href="https://www.mrrooter.com/about/blog/2020/july/why-is-water-quality-important-/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">Water quality can have a direct impact on our health</span></a>
and well-being. Contamination of an aquifer can spell disaster for the
communities that depend upon it. This is especially true if the water becomes
contaminated to the point that it cannot be used for even municipal purposes
without negative consequences.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Sometimes natural aspects of the landscape and
the geology of the aquifer can determine if a groundwater source is at risk of
contamination. As water passes along rocks it can cause erosion and leach
chemicals into the water. Some examples of chemicals that are often found in
groundwater sources include <a href="https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/causes-effects-solutions-groundwater-pollution.php"><span style="color: #1155cc;">sulfates, iron, chlorides, fluoride and arsenic</span></a>.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Non-natural sources of groundwater pollution
are of the most significant concern when it comes to our groundwater. These
contaminants are often leached into the soil and carried toward the aquifer as
water makes its way down. Some of the <a href="https://www.groundwater.org/get-informed/groundwater/contamination.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">major sources of groundwater pollution</span></a> include
things such as:</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Road salts and de-icer <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Greases, oils, and other
substances collected in parking lots and other paved surfaces<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Leaking fuel (and other chemical)
storage and spills<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Mine tailing piles<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Agricultural fertilizers,
herbicides, and pesticides<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Landfills<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Septic systems<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Pipelines<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Uncontrolled hazardous waste</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Many of the chemicals associated with these
sources <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/contamination-groundwater"><span style="color: #1155cc;">cause significant health problems</span></a> if/when they
make it into the aquifer and pollute drinking water. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h2 style="line-height: 150%;"><a name="_l8hwdfsashxa"></a><span lang="EN">Working
to Improve Water Quality<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Fortunately, there is quite a bit we can all
do both personally and as a business to reduce the amount of groundwater
contamination that is happening. Perhaps one of the biggest things that can be
done is to <a href="https://www.metaldetector.com/learn/buying-guide-articles/industrial-use/why-is-leak-detection-important"><span style="color: #1155cc;">check for leaking pipes</span></a>. Leaks in septic
systems, pipelines, or storage tanks around the house can be fixed and can make
a big difference.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Additional <a href="https://portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Aquifer-Protection-and-Groundwater/Ground-Water/Understanding-Ground-Water/What-we-can-all-do-to-reduce-groundwater-pollution"><span style="color: #1155cc;">things that we can do to reduce groundwater pollution</span></a>
include things like taking steps to reduce the number of chemicals that we use
— whether that means allowing for some dandelions in the yard (which is great
for pollinators!) or using more natural cleaning products. Likewise, all of the
chemicals that are used should be disposed of properly. Many of the things we
can do at home are also things we can advocate for in our communities, which
will ultimately make the largest local difference. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><i><b><span lang="EN" style="background: white; color: #555555; line-height: 18.4px;">Contributed by Indiana Lee:</span></b><span lang="EN" style="background: white; color: #555555; line-height: 18.4px;"> Indiana Lee is a journalist from the Pacific Northwest with a passion for covering workplace issues, environmental protection, social justice, and more. when she is not writing you can find her deep in the mountains with her two dogs. follow her work on <span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><a href="https://indianaleewrites.contently.com/" target="_blank"><span style="color: #dd5137; text-transform: none;">contently</span></a></span>, or reach her at <span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><a href="mailto:indianaleewrites@gmail.com" target="_blank"><span style="color: #dd5137; text-transform: none;">indianaleewrites@gmail.com</span></a></span></span></i></p>Muhammad Qasimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09422933048834961238noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8289051954418709326.post-47004066543518542462021-11-28T22:50:00.005+05:002021-11-28T22:50:33.282+05:00Geological Applications in Gardening<p> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjuxFBSYjP29Tz29HVo9fD4d0vCBDVigXnhZfPl7XF9BOsPfH3mtvZvUi2W_kxJ0Hv7wfKAvEnLoDRHrVwe3baXR9q3lCpKBxNNgT5lI0UFEeRhW6Z8KGor7Y2WnlzBHAbkUHJWsdW0tYYf/s624/11.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="416" data-original-width="624" height="412" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjuxFBSYjP29Tz29HVo9fD4d0vCBDVigXnhZfPl7XF9BOsPfH3mtvZvUi2W_kxJ0Hv7wfKAvEnLoDRHrVwe3baXR9q3lCpKBxNNgT5lI0UFEeRhW6Z8KGor7Y2WnlzBHAbkUHJWsdW0tYYf/w619-h412/11.jpg" width="619" /></a></p><p><span lang="EN" style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: Roboto; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Photo by </span><span lang="EN"><a href="https://www.pexels.com/@arnie-watkins-1337313?utm_content=attributionCopyText&utm_medium=referral&utm_source=pexels"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Roboto; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration-line: none;">Arnie Watkins</span></a></span><span lang="EN" style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: Roboto; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> from </span><span lang="EN"><a href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/green-plants-3068249/?utm_content=attributionCopyText&utm_medium=referral&utm_source=pexels"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Roboto; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration-line: none;">Pexels</span></a></span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">For some, gardening is a simple pleasure that
they put minimal effort into. For others, it is a much more involved hobby that
brings them joy and satisfaction. However, whichever end of the spectrum you
may fall on, there is more to successful gardening than meets the eye.</p><h1 align="center" style="text-align: center;"><a name="_80w9a0she74b"></a></h1>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">While minimal effort might produce some
immediate satisfactory results, it is not sustainable over time. To maintain a
garden year after year and see it flourish, you’ve got to put back into the
soil what is taken out of it. Essentially, you’ve got to use a bit of
science—geology, to be exact. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN"> </span>Geology is the study of the earth and what it
is made up of, including rocks and minerals, and minerals play an essential
role in gardening. On a larger scale, the agriculture industry has been <a href="https://www.seequent.com/the-future-of-farming-using-soil-geoscience-data-in-agriculture/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">using geological applications in farming</span></a> for
years to keep soil and crops healthy. But even everyday gardeners can have more
success if they use these same applications.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDXGocX49cnFPlOOc8tf3fiR2tuFJKNiIgFN_OS6B7wU8_HGyYkncaTVUhJt_B4FnZNyD6EdHga5KxZHLeiApe9ulOXmDD42JVV9E5gE1kNv5a2KpdN9oTkJfO_9_-O_okbJO3blXavUwE/s624/22.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="416" data-original-width="624" height="414" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDXGocX49cnFPlOOc8tf3fiR2tuFJKNiIgFN_OS6B7wU8_HGyYkncaTVUhJt_B4FnZNyD6EdHga5KxZHLeiApe9ulOXmDD42JVV9E5gE1kNv5a2KpdN9oTkJfO_9_-O_okbJO3blXavUwE/w597-h414/22.jpg" width="597" /></a></div><p></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="EN" style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: Roboto; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto;">Photo by </span><span lang="EN"><a href="https://www.pexels.com/@cottonbro?utm_content=attributionCopyText&utm_medium=referral&utm_source=pexels"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Roboto; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration-line: none;">cottonbro</span></a></span><span lang="EN" style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: Roboto; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto;"> from </span><span lang="EN"><a href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/brown-and-white-concrete-wall-5264737/?utm_content=attributionCopyText&utm_medium=referral&utm_source=pexels"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Roboto; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration-line: none;">Pexels</span></a></span><span lang="EN" style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: Roboto; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h2><a name="_sggh6slvyu5w"></a><span lang="EN">Soil is More Than Dirt<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">When you are gardening, everything essentially
boils down to the soil. Watering and sunlight, of course, play a crucial role
as well, but it is the soil that is the foundation of your garden and will
ultimately determine how much success you have. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN"> </span>While most people think of soil as the dirt in
the ground, it is actually <a href="https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/5-4-weathering-and-the-formation-of-soil/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">a complex mixture of minerals and organic matter</span></a>.
The soil that exists all around the earth is essential to our existence as it
plays a key role in sustaining plant growth. The minerals and matter found in
the soil can vary from one region to the next, and they ultimately determine
what plants can grow there and which ones can’t.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN"> </span><a href="http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2015/11/soil.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">Soil formation</span></a> occurs through a series of
processes that takes place just below the Earth’s surface:</p>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Weathering
produces loose debris, new minerals, and ions.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Rainwater
percolates through the debris and carries minerals and ions down into the
ground. New minerals form further down in the ground as a result of the
water mixing with the debris. <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Microbes,
fungi, plants, and animals contribute to the process by absorbing
nutrients and leaving behind organic waste and remains. Plant roots and
burrowing animals churn and break up the sediment, and microbes metabolize
minerals and organic matter, releasing chemicals into the soil.</span> </li></ol>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">These processes all occur at different depths
in the ground, which results in what is known as soil zones. These zones, also
known as horizons, are arranged in a vertical sequence and make up the soil
profile. The geological makeup of a soil, or its profile, will then determine
what plant life can grow there. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-TyrB5-1nwofdzGs5CdMkfXznZe2FxQM62fjnQVn8RBmfg09RorGrRQ1B4iLO2EReBk2stLycomSP7dSG0hAYxBaWKC2ASSpa97CR1Xyono1kVMsNK1NUFZYUlJNk5P1fjUiOHB5EyMpr/s469/33.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="469" data-original-width="309" height="573" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-TyrB5-1nwofdzGs5CdMkfXznZe2FxQM62fjnQVn8RBmfg09RorGrRQ1B4iLO2EReBk2stLycomSP7dSG0hAYxBaWKC2ASSpa97CR1Xyono1kVMsNK1NUFZYUlJNk5P1fjUiOHB5EyMpr/w383-h573/33.jpg" width="383" /></a></div><p></p><p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="EN" style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: Roboto; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto;">Photo by </span><span lang="EN"><a href="https://www.pexels.com/@rachel-claire?utm_content=attributionCopyText&utm_medium=referral&utm_source=pexels"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Roboto; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration-line: none;">Rachel Claire</span></a></span><span lang="EN" style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: Roboto; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto;"> from </span><span lang="EN"><a href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/rocky-range-on-grassy-ground-4993221/?utm_content=attributionCopyText&utm_medium=referral&utm_source=pexels"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Roboto; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration-line: none;">Pexels</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h2><a name="_b73nh46delr8"></a><span lang="EN">Choosing the Right Soil For Your
Garden<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">While some plants can adapt to the soil they
are planted in, they will be stronger and healthier if they have the proper
nutrients. So, it’s important to ensure your soil profile is healthy and has
the right minerals your plants need to sustain your garden. Though the specific
soil and minerals you need will vary depending on your region and the plants
you wish to grow, all <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/soil-minerals-and-plant-nutrition-127881474/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">plants require 17 elements to complete their life cycle</span></a>.
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN"> </span>Aside from Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen, all
of which are obtained from air and water, plants can get the remaining elements
they need from fertilizers, manures, and amendments added to the soil. The soil
itself, without any additions, should also have a good combination of minerals.
If it doesn’t, you will need to add them in.</p>
<h2><a name="_yrdjfa5o7q9h"></a><span lang="EN">Using Minerals to Enhance Your
Soil<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">To determine which minerals you need to use to
enhance your soil, you will need to run a test. While there are at-home test
kits available, the better option is to search your local area for companies
that provide testing services. They will give you a more accurate result of the
deficiencies in your soil. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN"> </span>Some common minerals that you can use to
address deficiencies in your soil include:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Limestone<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Sulfur<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Mineral N-P-K (Nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h2><a name="_frcahkrz6d84"></a><span lang="EN">Harmful Substances to Avoid<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Vermiculite, a puffy, lightweight granule that
some use to improve aeration in their soil, can sometimes contain
cancer-causing asbestos. Vermiculite is a naturally occurring mineral that, on
its own, is harmless, but before the 1990s, it was mined from the same ore
deposits that contained asbestos mineral fibers. While modern products that
contain vermiculite have high safety standards and should be asbestos-free, <a href="https://baronandbudd.com/news/vermiculite-danger-garden/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">you should avoid old or imported vermiculite</span></a>
soil amendments. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h2><a name="_d0s35faw5n2t"></a><span lang="EN">Using Rocks to Add Depth to Your
Garden<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">For many, having a garden is like <a href="https://www.uphomes.com/blog/backyard-retreat.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">having their own peaceful retreat in their backyard</span></a>.
However, building that retreat can take some time and effort. If you are
looking to create a flourishing and sustainable garden, it’s important to do
some research and use the applications above to ensure you have healthy soil.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">If science isn’t your thing, you can still
create a natural escape using rocks. <a href="https://www.gardendesign.com/landscape-design/rock-gardens.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">Rock gardens</span></a> are a great way to add depth and
dimension without putting in much effort. You can certainly create an elaborate
design using rocks and plants, but if you are looking for something that is
easier to maintain and requires minimal effort, a simple rock garden is a way
to go. There is no need to test and amend your soil, simply plan out your
design, dig out the space, and lay the rocks down. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h2><a name="_dz6gdk9ec6js"></a><span lang="EN">Wrapping Up<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Though an understanding of geology is not
necessary to plant a garden, it is highly beneficial for those looking to
create something more sustainable that will last for years to come. Doing a bit
of research and studying can go a long way towards creating a healthier and
flourishing garden. Furthermore, the healthier our soil and plants are, the
healthier our planet will be as a whole. </span></p>Muhammad Qasimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09422933048834961238noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8289051954418709326.post-45251288198889218892021-06-09T08:34:00.001+05:002021-06-09T08:34:14.821+05:00How to get kids interested in Geology<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="407" data-original-width="610" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhdlsWJNKlDyn3sPdYegEwyDvhnV-740wK0keC7-kWL43ZiT33Vo1zDOXYEXa1Kv5RDxdK-dlhEOxo5eb1bOeyE9MB1FGan3q_4TIJElRaAK5Fr3iElT49-9m24oW5cBlXFrqrfGrSMRCvc/s16000/3.jpg" /></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgbhE5Bgc_V4anGx1PS4LsYrn9ekYz-pI2M_JWFM0GLlwu8XHpCkLLPcTbh4Ag5jHhLjPHgv7oCzI6D9AlLjnzMNoclqXDi0yzvY0sxvjUJXuFc3aoxvmXEDFZ32ZMLU7cmg-ufnHJct4VU/s610/2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="407" data-original-width="610" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgbhE5Bgc_V4anGx1PS4LsYrn9ekYz-pI2M_JWFM0GLlwu8XHpCkLLPcTbh4Ag5jHhLjPHgv7oCzI6D9AlLjnzMNoclqXDi0yzvY0sxvjUJXuFc3aoxvmXEDFZ32ZMLU7cmg-ufnHJct4VU/s16000/2.jpg" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhml6SLvYJGFjhDPHTChteXBZxTicbpaiBwJbqmbHoA2JkZzOXsaCY4PbhcSRW2WR_nex9CRhkixaBOKDOdODHly3J8jGJzTMAIra3vNh5ifyO8opFpV8E2IuI53Jx8geIlcTVKRYJJadN8/s610/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="407" data-original-width="610" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhml6SLvYJGFjhDPHTChteXBZxTicbpaiBwJbqmbHoA2JkZzOXsaCY4PbhcSRW2WR_nex9CRhkixaBOKDOdODHly3J8jGJzTMAIra3vNh5ifyO8opFpV8E2IuI53Jx8geIlcTVKRYJJadN8/s16000/1.jpg" /></a></div><br /><div style="text-align: left;"><span lang="EN">Image Source: 1 - <a href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/person-under-delicate-arch-at-night-33688/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">Pexels<br /></span></a></span><span lang="EN"> 2- <a href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/cracked-stone-wall-838981/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">Pexels<br /></span></a></span><span lang="EN"> 3 - <a href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/three-men-standing-near-waterfalls-2387873/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">Pexels</span></a></span></div>
<p class="MsoNormal">It is unfortunate that geology has such a dry reputation. We know that it’s more than just studying rocks and minerals. It’s about exploring the rich history of our planet’s formation and evolution, using the landscape as artifacts that have recorded the stories of every subtle tectonic shift, and each extinction event. Yes, there is work and fine diligence involved, but this is in the service of engaging with a fascinating subject.<br /><br />However, it can often be difficult to get kids
over that reputation and on the path to amazing discoveries. This is a shame
because as a parent, you naturally want your child to be introduced to these
kinds of ideas and activities that can ignite their imagination for years to
come. For geologists, you want to share an educational experience that could
intrigue students, and perhaps start them on their own road to <a href="http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2016/05/online-geology-degree-and-courses.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">studying the subject at university</span></a> or just
taking it up as a hobby. In either case, one of the primary hurdles is getting
kids interested in geology in the first place. </p>
<p class="MsoNormal">So how can you best go about doing this? How
do you break through the stereotypes to give kids that spark of interest that
can tempt them down the rabbit hole into the fascinating world of geology?
Let’s take a closer look.</p><h2><span lang="EN">Go Multimedia<o:p></o:p></span></h2><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">We can all agree that books are awesome,
beautiful, essential items. However, you can’t just expect the wonders of
geology to take hold of all kids by throwing an academic text at them. Remember
that everybody engages in learning from a subjective perspective. <a href="https://www.wgu.edu/blog/five-educational-learning-theories2005.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">Various educational theories</span></a> explore the best
ways to educate children, and many of them accept that effective learning can
be dependent upon the student’s experiences, environment, and external
influences. Connectivism, in particular, posits that children learn by forming
strong connections to ideas, and this can be most effective when applied to
things that excite them. Therefore, it can be important to take a multimedia
approach that provides opportunities for kids to connect to geology in ways
that are most relevant to them.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">This could include:</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Documentaries<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"><span lang="EN">Introduce kids to
documentaries about geology. But be sure to keep these viewings short. Utilize
it as a way to get them intrigued or excited about a concept, and then follow
it up with a more practical demonstration. Don’t just stick to films aimed at kids,
though. The BBC’s <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2787218/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">Rise of the Continents</span></a> (2013) series, for
instance, is still an educational and entertaining look at how ancient geology
connects to our modern lives without talking down to its audience.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Hands-On Lessons<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"><span lang="EN">Often, geology is
best explored through the physical evidence of its impact. Provide kids with
physical examples of interesting geological phenomena — geodes, volcanic rock,
fossils. Take them on field trips to caves to reach out and touch stalactites
and stalagmites. If you can encourage them to have a hands-on experience of
geology, you can spark their interest in how the world was formed and spur them
to explore the subject further. Even better, if you can introduce them to geological
features in their local areas such as waterfalls, mountains, and cave systems,
they can form a more personal and relevant relationship with it.<o:p></o:p></span></p><h2><a name="_kbls16ltn5d3"></a><span lang="EN">Gamify Activities<o:p></o:p></span></h2><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Getting kids interested in geology can’t just
be predicated on passing on information. They need to be able to engage with it
in fun and active ways. Whether as a parent or educator, you should be feeding
their curiosity rather than trying to wrangle them into a lesson. One of the
best ways to do this is by providing activities that are framed as games.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Some activities to consider are:</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Geocaching<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"><span lang="EN">One of the most fun
aspects of geology is the potential for exploration. Geocaching gives kids the
opportunity to head out on an adventure, explore the geological landscape of
the area, and participate in a form of a treasure hunt. GPS coordinates provide
your kids with the general location of a hidden container, and they have to
explore the area to find it and enter their name in the logbook. <a href="https://www.metaldetector.com/learn/buying-guide-articles/geocaching/over-one-million-geocaches-hidden-around-you"><span style="color: #1155cc;">These spots are hidden all over the world</span></a>, and
you can set your kids the challenge of making observations about the geological
elements they notice along the way, you can even set geocache location clues
based on natural landmarks. EarthCaching, a subset of geocaching spearheaded by
the <a href="https://www.geosociety.org/GSA/fieldexp/EarthCache/home.aspx"><span style="color: #1155cc;">Geological Society of America</span></a>, is also growing
in popularity, and the cache includes educational information about the local
landscape.</span> </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Minecraft<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"><span lang="EN">Believe it or not,
Minecraft can be a good tool to get kids more engaged with geology. There are
elements of volcanic activity, <a href="http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2016/02/mineral-classication.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">mineral identification</span></a>, and earth development
that reflect real-life geological behavior. Educators can use this as a forum
through which to discuss geosciences. Set challenges for kids in the game to
set about mining a certain amount and type of minerals, or to create a
realistic volcanic eruption and lava flow, then talk about how this is
reflected in real life. It can also be helpful to show them examples of the raw
materials they use in the game — obsidian, redstone, quartz — and discuss how
they’re formed.<o:p></o:p></span></p><h2><a name="_l8hwdfsashxa"></a><span lang="EN">Inspire Them<o:p></o:p></span></h2><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Passion can be contagious. As such, one way
that you can be effective in getting kids interested in geology is by
introducing them to people who not just have a passion for it, but are also
talented in communicating and sharing that passion. Thankfully, our digital age
provides great opportunities to find science communicators on YouTube or social
media — the Smithsonian museum has posted talks with their <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zMPh4OmXE5o"><span style="color: #1155cc;">geologist
Dr. Ben Andrews</span></a>, and astrobiologist <a href="https://www.ted.com/talks/tara_djokic_this_ancient_rock_is_changing_our_theory_on_the_origin_of_life"><span style="color: #1155cc;">Tara Djokovic has produced a TED</span></a> talk on her
research into how ancient rock can hold clues about the origins of life on our
planet. Explore streaming services and social media to find the professionals
that can inspire your kids to discover more. <o:p></o:p></span></p><h2><a name="_u6cecakzazpa"></a><span lang="EN">Conclusion<o:p></o:p></span></h2><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Geology is an important field and one that has
some fascinating elements. Getting kids interested in geosciences is often
about finding ways to immediately help them to forge connections, and
demonstrate that they can have fun while exploring the theory. Keep in mind
that there are multimedia tools at your disposal, and introduce them to people
and ideas that can spark their curiosity.<br /><br /><span style="background-color: white; color: #555555; font-family: arial; font-size: 13px; text-align: justify; text-transform: uppercase;"></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><i><b><span lang="EN" style="background: white; color: #555555; line-height: 115%;">Contributed by Indiana Lee:</span></b><span lang="EN" style="background: white; color: #555555; line-height: 115%;"> Indiana
Lee is a journalist from the Pacific Northwest with a passion for
covering workplace issues, environmental protection, social justice, and
more. when she is not writing you can find her deep in the mountains with her
two dogs. follow her work on <span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><a href="https://indianaleewrites.contently.com/" target="_blank"><span style="color: #dd5137; text-transform: none;">contently</span></a></span>, or reach
her at <span style="text-transform: uppercase;"><a href="mailto:indianaleewrites@gmail.com" target="_blank"><span style="color: #dd5137; text-transform: none;">indianaleewrites@gmail.com</span></a></span></span></i><span lang="EN"><o:p></o:p></span></p>Muhammad Qasimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09422933048834961238noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8289051954418709326.post-77611403431152601532021-05-25T01:08:00.005+05:002021-05-25T01:08:22.185+05:00The Geological Impact of Hemp Agriculture<p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZRfDJK5lln5vDwfW4uxOf_C6FU5_1miyB6NYz8jLEjqkcPtWt8vH0Umg8Uq53PbbuJcwxrKE__n9Ofhosw5jbIEHiTQHO04rIerCQFD3lvNs6VbJyBenChN30N_p1YPrhsKh-0r57XJgc/s610/11.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="457" data-original-width="610" height="382" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZRfDJK5lln5vDwfW4uxOf_C6FU5_1miyB6NYz8jLEjqkcPtWt8vH0Umg8Uq53PbbuJcwxrKE__n9Ofhosw5jbIEHiTQHO04rIerCQFD3lvNs6VbJyBenChN30N_p1YPrhsKh-0r57XJgc/w510-h382/11.png" width="510" /></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Roboto;"> Image Source: </span></b><span lang="EN"><a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/farmland-half-soil-ground-801817/"><b><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Roboto;">pixabay.com</span></b></a></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></div><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN">Looking out over a field of crops, it can be
hard to determine exactly what is growing if you don’t have prior experience.
It could be a variety of different types of wheat, legumes, corn, or so on. It
may come as somewhat of a surprise given decades of federal regulations, but
the crop growing out in the field you’re gazing upon could also be hemp.</span></p><div>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN">Hemp products have made a surprising entry
into a marketplace they were once forbidden from. Loosening of federal
regulations surrounding marijuana plants — particularly those parts and
varieties that are not known for altering your mental state — has led to a boom
in the market. Hemp has long been known as a highly versatile and useful
material and could come to replace many of the alternatives in the market because
it is cheaper and of similar quality.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN">Most surprising though are the potential
positive impacts hemp growing could provide for the local ecology. Particularly
geological features such as soils. The conversion in American agriculture back
to hemp growth could play a profound role in preserving and building the health
of soils across the country. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h2 style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><a name="_cnpno0jt2oau"></a><span lang="EN">Hemp
Resurgence<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN">Due to its association with marijuana, hemp
has earned a bad rap in the past half-century. However, hemp played a
significant historical role in the founding and building of the United States.
The crop arrived in the U.S. with the first settlers in Jamestown, who used it
to make all sorts of essential items including rope, sails, and clothing. Hemp
was so important that <a href="https://www.farmcollector.com/farm-life/strategic-fibers/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">farmers in the colonies were required by law to grow it</span></a>
as a part of their overall agricultural production. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN"> </span>Hemp has long been known as a vastly useful
product. In the early 1900s, the U.S. Department of Agriculture published
findings that <a href="https://ministryofhemp.com/hemp/history/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">hemp produced 4 times more paper per acre than trees</span></a>
and in the 1930s, Popular Mechanics determined hemp could be used in the
production of over 25,000 different products. However, none of this stopped
hemp from being listed alongside marijuana as a Schedule I drug in 1970.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Only in the past decade have regulations
restricting the production of hemp been loosened to allow farmers to grow the
plant. Only with the 2018 Farm Bill legislation did hemp become fully legal to
grow in the U.S. Economists estimate that <a href="https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2021/03/04/2186928/0/en/The-Size-of-Global-Industrial-Hemp-Market-Will-Reach-USD-36-Billion-by-2026-FnF-Research.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">the industrial hemp market will reach nearly $36 billion
by 2026</span></a> — a huge explosion in value and production.</p>
<h2 style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><a name="_kbls16ltn5d3"></a><span lang="EN">Building
Soils<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN">Though the resurgence of the hemp market is
interesting, there are many less visible benefits than the money. For instance,
hemp can be a powerful means of conserving and building valuable agricultural
soils. <a href="http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2015/11/soil.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">Soils are complicated and can take decades to form</span></a>
but they are quite easy to destroy, especially in arid or heavily utilized
areas. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN"> </span><a href="https://livepurepower.com/benefits-of-hemp-for-regeneratie-agriculture/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">Hemp can be a wonderful rotational crop</span></a>
because, even though it is an annual, it puts down deep roots. Deep roots hold
soils in place, preventing erosion, and break up soils which can allow for the
planting of more sensitive crops in the following years. Beyond that, hemp
produces an incredible amount of biomass, which can be turned back into the
soil and used to increase nutrient value for the next round of plants.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Believe it or not, hemp can also be used to
remediate damaged soils. The plant can typically grow in contaminated soils
without any negative impacts. It can also be used as a means of reducing
herbicide and pesticide usage because it is naturally resistant to most pests.
This means that not only can damaged areas be put back into production over
time, but fewer chemicals are leached into waterways, which would not only
improve natural habitat but <a href="https://www.mrrooter.ca/about/blog/2020/july/why-is-water-quality-important-/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">could increase the quality of drinking water</span></a>.</p>
<h2 style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><a name="_l8hwdfsashxa"></a><span lang="EN">Many
Uses<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN">As previously mentioned, hemp has all sorts of
potential uses and stands to compete with or replace many materials that are
currently used. Building construction is just one of many examples. <a href="http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2021/04/building-houses-with-geological.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">Geological and materials considerations are significant</span></a>
in building projects, and hemp is entering the markets in more ways than one. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">One of the most interesting ways hemp can be
used in construction is through what is known as hempcrete. The material is
only about <a href="https://www.engineering.com/story/not-just-a-pipe-dream-hemp-as-a-building-material"><span style="color: #1155cc;">15% as dense as concrete and could float on water</span></a>,
yet it supports vertical loads such as wood stud framing well. Such material
was used long before concrete and may even extend the life of wood structures
because it allows the wood to ‘breathe’ a bit more.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Hemp also makes a great insulation material
without many of the harmful side effects that <a href="https://baronandbudd.com/mesothelioma-lawyer/other-health-effects-of-asbestos/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">some previous supermaterials such as asbestos</span></a>
have. While asbestos is extremely heat resistant, it causes myriad health
problems. Hemp is also resistant to both heat and mold, which can protect a
house or building even longer, and it heals health problems instead of causing
them.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN">***</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN">Hemp has had a long, significant history as an
agricultural commodity in the United States. The redaction of laws that prevent
growing the product has led to a boom in the market and thousands of updated
ideas on how to use it in all sorts of industries. Aside from the great
economic benefits, hemp has the potential to play a significant environmental
role in building and rehabilitating the soils that all of us depend upon. </span></p></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><i style="color: #555555; font-family: arial; font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Indiana Lee is a journalist from the Pacific Northwest with a passion for covering workplace issues, </i><i style="color: #555555; font-family: arial; font-size: 13px; text-align: justify;">environmental protection, social justice, and more. When she is not writing you can find her deep in the mountains with her two dogs. Follow her work on <a href="https://indianaleewrites.contently.com/" style="color: #dd5137; outline: none;" target="_blank">Contently</a>, or reach her at <a href="mailto:indianaleewrites@gmail.com" style="color: #dd5137; outline: none;" target="_blank">indianaleewrites@gmail.com</a></i></p>Muhammad Qasimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09422933048834961238noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8289051954418709326.post-52895141850611282342021-04-20T22:09:00.008+05:002021-04-20T22:12:27.956+05:00Building Houses With Geological Concerns in Mind<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjsG6D3oH7s-6NoRiP0nHJEx7p6Le1b2pyBPe49vI9efynKhaWdEdxONmg69w8-Xt2bmNGf5YCiXPMpMsqilB9qUffAbkSqBQrr27-j2sieguhw13eD4E4z195vNEpvECogBHdHGbfN1GgM/s1600/q.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1200" data-original-width="1600" height="390" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjsG6D3oH7s-6NoRiP0nHJEx7p6Le1b2pyBPe49vI9efynKhaWdEdxONmg69w8-Xt2bmNGf5YCiXPMpMsqilB9qUffAbkSqBQrr27-j2sieguhw13eD4E4z195vNEpvECogBHdHGbfN1GgM/w521-h390/q.jpg" width="521" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b style="text-align: left;"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Roboto; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto;">Image Source: </span></b><span lang="EN" style="text-align: left;"><b><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Roboto; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto;"><a href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/person-holding-black-pen-1109541/">Pexels</a></span></b></span></div>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">When people start looking for land to build a
house, the first things that often come to mind are property value and beauty.
Unfortunately, it can feel like geologists often get overlooked in this part of
the process. While a realtor’s job is to sell a piece of property by making it
as appealing as possible, it’s irresponsible for anyone in the housing market
to ignore geological warnings when it comes to building something new. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">Because geologists often get ignored when it
comes to home-building, far too many people make the mistake of building on
land that is susceptible to earthquakes, flooding, or landslides.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">So, what can geologists do to have a greater
presence in the real estate industry? How can you make a difference and work
with home-builders to ensure the safety and security of newly-constructed homes
on the right kind of property?</p>
<h2 style="line-height: 150%;"><a name="_cnpno0jt2oau"></a><span lang="EN">Understanding
the Ideal Home Location<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">The ideal home location in the eyes of a
geologist may not be the same as the ideal location for a realtor or buyer. One
of the first things you can do to get a better understanding of the risks in
certain locations is to <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/centers/geohazards"><span style="color: #1155cc;">educate yourself on geologic hazards</span></a> in that
location. Some of the most common concerns for specific locations include: <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">●<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Tornadoes<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">●<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Hurricanes<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">●<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Landslides<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">●<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Tsunamis<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">●<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Earthquakes<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;"><span lang="EN"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Obviously, different concerns affect different
parts of the country. So, it’s not enough to only understand some of the risks
of your own area. That’s especially true if you want to branch out and work
with contractors across the country.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">The more you know about different geological
hazards in different locations, the easier it will be to keep builders
informed. Realtors constantly use the “location, location, location” motto when
it comes to selling a piece of land or a home, but as a geologist, you can help
them to find the ideal location that is as safe from disaster as it is
beautiful.</span></p>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhp2gXoWYOLrLfRAACFuS1Vg9p4vOHWYfVKRtj1er26EmhfLAgTINd1k8J-n1GKM7pGyb3cBv8wh3GWOQDXVB7Fh_P2InTTxIh5YjwTQ-EZBkMJH42cXORI-UVWjvVX4J9l1jM8ukhpNf1H/s1600/qq.jpeg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="900" data-original-width="1600" height="331" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhp2gXoWYOLrLfRAACFuS1Vg9p4vOHWYfVKRtj1er26EmhfLAgTINd1k8J-n1GKM7pGyb3cBv8wh3GWOQDXVB7Fh_P2InTTxIh5YjwTQ-EZBkMJH42cXORI-UVWjvVX4J9l1jM8ukhpNf1H/w589-h331/qq.jpeg" width="589" /></a></div><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN" style="background: white; font-family: Roboto;">Image
credit Tony-Lam-Hoang on </span><span lang="EN"><a href="https://wunderstock.com/"><span color="windowtext" style="background: white; font-family: Roboto; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto; mso-highlight: white;">Wunderstock</span></a></span></p>
<h2 style="line-height: 150%;"><a name="_kbls16ltn5d3"></a><span lang="EN">Working
With Contractors <o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">If you contract your services out, you can
work with building contractors or directly with those interested in building or
rennovating a home to make sure they aren’t building on land with geological
concerns. On top of that, any good contractor is sure to <a href="https://generalcontractorlicenseguide.com/7-questions-to-ask-your-remodeling-clients-before-starting-a-job/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">ask their clients questions</span></a> about what they’re
looking for in a project, including how long they plan to stay in their home
and other expectations they might have — which means you as a geological
contractor should be doing the same.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal">You should also ask specific questions and
make sure they understand your concerns about the location they’re choosing.
You can ask them how they plan to utilize the property while guiding them on
some of the best practices to keep their new construction safe. That could
include foundational changes, like using shock absorbers or making the
foundation more flexible, depending on the risk of geological activity in a
particular area. It’s important to emphasize that on top of everything else
homebuyers should <a href="https://www.uphomes.com/blog/what-to-look-for-when-buying-a-house.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">keep an eye out for when buying a new house</span></a>,
they should also be aware of where that house is located.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">If you spend enough time working with
contractors, you might even think about <a href="http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2019/04/designing-buildings-to-reduce-impact-of.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">designing your own buildings</span></a> and homes that
are structurally sound and meant to withstand some geological problems, like
earthquakes. The more you learn about the construction industry, the more you
can do to keep people safe. The more the home-building industry knows about
geology, the more they will take natural disasters seriously when it comes to
laying the foundation for a new house.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">It’s a win-win situation for everyone, but
it’s especially important for any family that wants to build a new house.
Without the knowledge of a geologist in a geologically-active area, that family
could be placing themselves in great danger in a very short amount of time.</p>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhCZBdi9TyDZVBE8oVFWm4HO0f79uxTVTbTDMAYdLOZ-NuXj5p5KYJDFrPBdLpiDuBvYdCo7xTHccNQi6iFQ-pvbbdBxREUYOap5veaqKiXOsDW8jQiDp9vyPGUCMLyUWGLJl8ApKhlIxjk/s1600/qqq.jpeg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1067" data-original-width="1600" height="326" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhCZBdi9TyDZVBE8oVFWm4HO0f79uxTVTbTDMAYdLOZ-NuXj5p5KYJDFrPBdLpiDuBvYdCo7xTHccNQi6iFQ-pvbbdBxREUYOap5veaqKiXOsDW8jQiDp9vyPGUCMLyUWGLJl8ApKhlIxjk/w490-h326/qqq.jpeg" width="490" /></a></div><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN" style="background: rgb(229, 231, 235); font-family: Roboto; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Image credit
Alex-Siale on </span><span lang="EN"><a href="https://wunderstock.com/"><span style="background: rgb(229, 231, 235); color: #1155cc; font-family: Roboto; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto;">Wunderstock</span></a></span></p>
<h2 style="line-height: 150%;"><a name="_l8hwdfsashxa"></a><span lang="EN">Working
With Realtors<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Another route you could take when it comes to
utilizing your geological skills is to work with a local real estate office.
Again, realtors want to list land that is appealing in every way possible. You
can work with them by surveying their land options for things like:</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">●<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Seismic activity<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">●<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Likelihood of a landslide<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">●<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Wildfire threats<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">●<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Flooding concerns</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">These aren’t necessarily <a href="https://www.inscenter.com/blog/2017/03/geological-hazards-you-should-look-for-when-buying-a-home"><span style="color: #1155cc;">geological hazards</span></a> that would completely
prevent anyone from building on a lot. But, a home-builder needs to be made
aware of these issues. It might force the realtor to lower the price of the
land, but transparency can get it sold faster.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">There are plenty of <a href="http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2020/06/top-5-little-known-geological-jobs-in.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">geology jobs</span></a> to consider when you’re an expert
in your field. But, working with people who are about to build a house can be
an incredibly fulfilling reward, simply because you could be saving lives. The
more geologists that get involved with building houses, the more people will
take notice of geological concerns and potential hazards.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Find ways to work with builders, contractors,
and realtors in your own neighborhood to make sure you’re all on the same page
when it comes to keeping homeowners safe in their new construction for years to
come. Even if you start small, you can use your skills to eventually branch out
across the country and help connect geology and real estate once and for all.
The more geologists who take an active interest in such things, the more lives
can be saved from natural disasters. <br /><br /><i style="color: #555555; font-family: arial; font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Indiana Lee is a journalist from the Pacific Northwest with a passion for covering workplace issues, </i><i style="color: #555555; font-family: arial; font-size: 13px; text-align: justify;">environmental protection, social justice, and more. When she is not writing you can find her deep in the mountains with her two dogs. Follow her work on <a href="https://indianaleewrites.contently.com/" style="color: #dd5137; outline: none;" target="_blank">Contently</a>, or reach her at <a href="mailto:indianaleewrites@gmail.com" style="color: #dd5137; outline: none;" target="_blank">indianaleewrites@gmail.com</a></i><o:p></o:p></span></p>Muhammad Qasimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09422933048834961238noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8289051954418709326.post-54139463461182521572021-01-20T15:20:00.006+05:002021-01-20T15:20:46.806+05:00The Environmental Implications of Urban Sprawl<p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Human activity has fundamentally altered the
natural world in countless ways. Geologists and environmental scientists alike
are consistently looking at the various aspects of our environment that are
suffering under humanity’s watch. And although issues such as climate change
and air pollution tend to get the bulk of media coverage in regards to
environmentalism, we shouldn’t overlook similar topics such as urban sprawl.<br /><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj25byF-2GYJes9wNn9I2CpSUtq92of3Is2LVaj0U7T36VHki32BOHynpaNmOjHOAWSb2A1yKJuPDMt4I37H5vFmUmaa3oCvUF7flBo_Dk2t5fnyGqhBRTzOMdLPia0EmsmAC_Elf62iKde/s458/11.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="257" data-original-width="458" height="347" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj25byF-2GYJes9wNn9I2CpSUtq92of3Is2LVaj0U7T36VHki32BOHynpaNmOjHOAWSb2A1yKJuPDMt4I37H5vFmUmaa3oCvUF7flBo_Dk2t5fnyGqhBRTzOMdLPia0EmsmAC_Elf62iKde/w561-h347/11.jpg" width="561" /></a></td></tr></tbody></table></span><span lang="EN"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Roboto; font-weight: bold;">Image Source: </span><b><span lang="EN" style="background: white; color: #0d0d0d; font-family: Roboto; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto; mso-highlight: white;">Photo by </span></b><span lang="EN"><a href="https://wunderstock.com/en"><b><span style="background: white; color: #1155cc; font-family: Roboto; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto; mso-highlight: white;">Sergei Akulich</span></b></a></span><b><span lang="EN" style="background: white; color: #0d0d0d; font-family: Roboto; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto; mso-highlight: white;"> on </span></b><span lang="EN"><a href="https://wunderstock.com/en"><b><span style="background: white; color: #1155cc; font-family: Roboto; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto; mso-highlight: white;">Wunderstock</span></b></a></span><b><span lang="EN" style="background: white; color: #0d0d0d; font-family: Roboto; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto; mso-highlight: white;"> (</span></b><span lang="EN"><a href="https://wunderstock.com/public-domain-images"><b><span style="background: white; color: #1155cc; font-family: Roboto; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto; mso-highlight: white;">license</span></b></a></span><b><span lang="EN" style="background: white; color: #0d0d0d; font-family: Roboto; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto; mso-highlight: white;">)</span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Today, more people live in cities than in
rural areas for the first time in history. This has led to the practice of
systemic urbanization, which is relatively new. While major cities certainly
existed before the 1920s, it was during this decade that urbanization truly
took hold. And once urban streets were literally cemented in place, it <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/112/27/8244"><span style="color: #1155cc;">helped
shape the future of urban sprawl</span></a>. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN"><o:p> </o:p></span>According to researchers, in fact, “once laid
down, the pattern of streets determines urban form and the level of sprawl for
decades to come.” This is especially interesting when you consider that sprawl
predates the widespread ownership of personal vehicles. Automobile dependency
is considered <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/the-characteristics-causes-and-consequences-of-sprawling-103014747/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">one of the primary characteristics of sprawl</span></a>,
alongside excessively large home and lot sizes.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN"><o:p> </o:p></span>To some, urban sprawl might be considered
somewhat of a necessary evil, or simply the inevitable product of technological
advancements. Yet the expansion of cities is an inherently wasteful process,
especially in regards to natural land and resources, and we can no longer
afford to ignore that fact. The good news is that humans can fight back against
urban sprawl, by supporting the smart growth of global cities.</p><h2 style="line-height: 36px;"><span lang="EN">Considering the Merits and Pitfalls of Urbanization</span></h2><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">From a geological standpoint, the effects of
urban sprawl are easy to spot. Urban geologists around the world have noted
various environmental issues that are a direct result of urbanization. <a href="https://www.earthmagazine.org/article/urban-geology-emerging-discipline-increasingly-urbanized-world"><span style="color: #1155cc;">Land erosion is common in urban areas</span></a>, for
example. What’s more, soil erosion often causes a cascade effect wherein cities
are more vulnerable to floods and potential groundwater contamination.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Urban sprawl has also left a variety of social
problems in its wake, including unequal housing opportunities. As the subject
of urbanization thus encompasses multiple disciplines, so do potential
solutions to its negative effects. In recent years, so-called “smart growth”
initiatives have gained traction as a viable means of addressing urban sprawl.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtkrE9yxlUtnqafvzuzWIzGP6-xkSxNkafjoJ8_2aIwisPYh7AhcQSDCp2m5g5aWO0Ze8o1e9LLfThbi_V21dMuWcUv5W4wTY-9rMjE4IV7M4hOhC2sqBmNrhBXD-L3f7USvtuOMiSjQjR/s624/Picture5.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="359" data-original-width="624" height="295" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtkrE9yxlUtnqafvzuzWIzGP6-xkSxNkafjoJ8_2aIwisPYh7AhcQSDCp2m5g5aWO0Ze8o1e9LLfThbi_V21dMuWcUv5W4wTY-9rMjE4IV7M4hOhC2sqBmNrhBXD-L3f7USvtuOMiSjQjR/w514-h295/Picture5.png" width="514" /></a></td></tr></tbody></table></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Roboto; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto;">Image Source: </span></b><span lang="EN"><a href="https://unsplash.com/photos/QQtoNkv5GNE"><b><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Roboto; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto;">https://unsplash.com/photos/QQtoNkv5GNE</span></b></a></span><b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Roboto; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Smart growth focuses on securing affordable
housing opportunities, encouraging neighborhood beautification while avoiding
gentrification. The preservation of historic architecture is also a vital part
of smart growth, alongside improving community diversity and quality of life.
Of course, the environment also benefits greatly: the ultimate goal of <a href="https://www.colonyroofers.com/how-you-can-contribute-to-local-smart-growth/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">sm</span></a><a href="https://www.colonyroofers.com/how-you-can-contribute-to-local-smart-growth/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">art growth land development strategies</span></a> is to
preserve natural land and conserve resources. <o:p></o:p></span></p><h2 style="line-height: 150%;"><a name="_kzgu9u1842dd"></a><span lang="EN">Realistic
Ways to Combat Urban Sprawl<o:p></o:p></span></h2><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Mixed land usage is a cornerstone of smart
growth plans. Rather than investing in areas that are zoned for single-use,
whether residential or commercial, proponents of smart growth focus on
mixed-use. In mixed-use zoning, apartments and other residential spaces exist
alongside businesses, strengthening communities while streamlining land usage.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Yet mixed land-use and smart growth can’t
exist in a vacuum. To effectively combat the negative repercussions of urban
sprawl, we must also acknowledge certain economic and social factors. For
starters, <a href="https://money.usnews.com/money/personal-finance/articles/2012/09/18/why-you-pay-extra-to-live-in-the-city"><span style="color: #1155cc;">you pay much more to live in a city</span></a> than a
rural community or small town.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">
</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Food is typically more costly in urban grocery
and convenience stores, while commodities such as gas, entertainment, and
parking also command a higher price tag. Lower-income residents may even find
that <a href="https://www.fiscaltiger.com/denied-for-a-home-loan-heres-what-to-do-next/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">they are </span></a><a href="https://www.fiscaltiger.com/denied-for-a-home-loan-heres-what-to-do-next/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">denie</span></a><a href="https://www.fiscaltiger.com/denied-for-a-home-loan-heres-what-to-do-next/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">d a home loan</span></a> for a pricey urban dwelling,
only to qualify for a cheaper rural property. Therefore, to combat the spread
of urbanization, affordable housing programs should be prioritized. <br /></span></p><h2 style="line-height: 36px;"><span lang="EN">The Connection Between the Environment and Your Daily Life</span></h2><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Investing in affordable housing and community
wellbeing can help preserve natural spaces, but other factors must be taken
into account. Across the U.S., public transportation in urban areas is
frequently inadequate, with cars still the nation’s most-utilized form of
transportation, by a wide margin. While the numbers may have altered slightly
in the wake of the pandemic, before the COVID-19 outbreak, <a href="https://www.bts.gov/statistical-products/surveys/national-household-travel-survey-daily-travel-quick-facts"><span style="color: #1155cc;">personal vehicles were used for a full 87% of daily trips</span></a>.
<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN"> <table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIoLFVUri2aaX8O_DmBiRM76OnufjdVbWqE9okq1MDGONCF5MY0V5KgnFMBkmblD6tG-geydsqcPP1FxRMeopvKwVuApANlZMG4IFvLsKNWDhOnUaOLDKX5NYKytg4UnMwGqflq-q7p6P3/s624/Picture6.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="468" data-original-width="624" height="362" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIoLFVUri2aaX8O_DmBiRM76OnufjdVbWqE9okq1MDGONCF5MY0V5KgnFMBkmblD6tG-geydsqcPP1FxRMeopvKwVuApANlZMG4IFvLsKNWDhOnUaOLDKX5NYKytg4UnMwGqflq-q7p6P3/w483-h362/Picture6.png" width="483" /></a></td></tr></tbody></table></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Roboto;"><b> </b> Image Source: </span><span lang="EN"><a href="https://unsplash.com/photos/kG71BXh8KFw"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Roboto;">https://unsplash.com/photos/kG71BXh8KFw</span></a></span><b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Roboto; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN"><b>Key Takeaways<br /></b><br />The continued dominance of personal vehicles
over public transportation has a detrimental effect on the air we breathe. And
make no mistake: poor air quality is as much of a public health issue as it is
an environmental one. <a href="https://onlinedegrees.unr.edu/blog/physical-environment-related-to-physical-activity-and-injury-prevention/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">By </span></a><a href="https://onlinedegrees.unr.edu/blog/physical-environment-related-to-physical-activity-and-injury-prevention/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">encou</span></a><a href="https://onlinedegrees.unr.edu/blog/physical-environment-related-to-physical-activity-and-injury-prevention/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">raging the use of carbon-neutral forms of transport such
as bicycles</span></a>, especially for short trips, or public transportation,
fewer greenhouse gases are released into the atmosphere. Not only that, the
public health of the community is cyclically increased by both exercise and
improved environmental conditions.<o:p></o:p></span></p><h2><a name="_g6npmglxt1fh"></a></h2><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">
<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">In cities across the nation, urban sprawl and
the use of personal vehicles go hand-in-hand. The resulting air pollution is
just one of the myriad environmental implications of urbanization, alongside <a href="http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2015/12/groundwater-problems.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">groundwater problems</span></a> and land erosion. Urban
sprawl also perpetuates housing inequality. As such, it’s our duty as
scientists and global citizens to find viable solutions, such as smart city
initiatives and improved roadways that prioritize efficient, affordable, and
eco-friendly public transportation.<o:p></o:p></span></p><h2 style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN"><br /></span><div style="text-align: left;"><span lang="EN"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b style="background-color: white; color: #555555; font-size: 13px;">Contributed by Indiana Lee:</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #555555; font-size: 13px; font-weight: 400;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; color: #555555; font-size: 13px; font-weight: 400; text-align: justify;"><i style="text-align: center;">Indiana Lee is a journalist from the Pacific Northwest with a passion for covering workplace issues, </i><i>environmental protection, social justice, and more. When she is not writing you can find her deep in the mountains with her two dogs. Follow her work on <a href="https://indianaleewrites.contently.com/" style="color: #dd5137; outline: none;" target="_blank">Contently</a>, or reach her at <a href="mailto:indianaleewrites@gmail.com" style="color: #dd5137; outline: none;" target="_blank">indianaleewrites@gmail.com</a></i></span></span></span></div></h2><h2 style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN"><br /></span></h2><p></p>Muhammad Qasimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09422933048834961238noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8289051954418709326.post-8573221185643745862020-11-20T04:25:00.005+05:002020-11-20T04:25:37.213+05:00Dangerous Minerals That Can Be Found in Daily Life<p class="MsoNormal"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPiIPsr-ctdklBFAWZnD49tUcy0vFqeOQmYJE2u8ezgqx11KdUSTnaYFqB0T17R0Ib3clcN1Ym191uBLa-oImaMnQQg3Y-wOJJpCC5lhZlT8_P9AvsiZXuvF9MjH-k_CqtkK35kXxbcmoP/s610/photo.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="407" data-original-width="610" height="268" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPiIPsr-ctdklBFAWZnD49tUcy0vFqeOQmYJE2u8ezgqx11KdUSTnaYFqB0T17R0Ib3clcN1Ym191uBLa-oImaMnQQg3Y-wOJJpCC5lhZlT8_P9AvsiZXuvF9MjH-k_CqtkK35kXxbcmoP/w400-h268/photo.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Roboto; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto;"> Image Source: </span></b><span lang="EN"><a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/bottle-medical-pharmacy-1503897/"><b><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Roboto; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto;">Pixabay</span></b></a></span><b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Roboto; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">There are over <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/earth/inside-the-earth/minerals-gems/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">4,000 naturally-occurring minerals</span></a> in the
world. Many of them are a part of your everyday life, and you probably don’t
give them much thought.</span></p><div>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Some of the most common minerals that can make
life go on as normal each day include copper, iron ore, silver, cobalt, and
lithium. Without minerals, life as we know it would be completely different,
and we wouldn’t have many of the creature comforts we depend on.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">While minerals are essential for how we live
our lives, some of them can be quite dangerous. Understanding <a href="http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2015/09/10-worlds-most-deadly-minerals.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">which minerals can be toxic (and even deadly)</span></a>
can help you to stay away from them and focus on the ones that can benefit you,
rather than harm you.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Let’s look at some of those dangerous
minerals, where they can be found, and why you should avoid them. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h2 style="line-height: 150%;"><a name="_cnpno0jt2oau"></a><span lang="EN">Asbestos<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Asbestos is commonly-talked about material,
thanks to its prominence several decades ago. In the U.S., asbestos was a
common construction material <a href="http://www.ehso.com/asbestosfoundwhere.htm"><span style="color: #1155cc;">until
the 1970s</span></a>. It was used in homes and commercial buildings for
insulation and absorption. If you own an older home today, there is a chance
the walls still may contain asbestos. So, any construction projects you take on
need to be handled with care. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN"> </span><a href="https://baronandbudd.com/news/what-is-asbestos-why-is-it-dangerous/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">Asbestos is dangerous to the average person</span></a>
because it can create a variety of lung issues. It is an incredibly small
substance. In fact, 80,000 fibers of asbestos can fit on a single grain of
rice. So, if it is breathed in, it’s far too easy for those fibers to burrow
into the lungs. That can create problems like:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Shortness of breath<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Coughing<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Fatigue<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Pain in the chest</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Over time, it can even lead to severe health
conditions, including lung cancer. Thankfully, asbestos isn’t nearly as
commonly-found anymore. If you are worried that your home or building might
contain traces, it’s important to take precautions when doing any sort of
project, including wearing a mask and utilizing proper ventilation. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h2 style="line-height: 150%;"><a name="_kbls16ltn5d3"></a><span lang="EN">Arsenic<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">There are plenty of old stereotypes and even
jokes about using arsenic as a poison substance. But, there is nothing funny
about the damage it can do. Arsenic minerals include:</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Arsenopyrite<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Realgar<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Orpiment<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN"> </span>These minerals can be found in everyday metals
to pesticides. Unfortunately, arsenic is highly poisonous when inhaled or
ingested. It can lead to certain types of respiratory issues and even
developmental disorders.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN"> </span>One of the most dangerous things about arsenic
is that it can contaminate water when proper precautions aren’t in place.
Arsenic from certain metals can get into drinking water and lead to everything
from skin lesions to cancer. <a href="http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2015/07/water-pollutants.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">Finding arsenic in groundwater</span></a> has become a
serious problem in some parts of the earth, making it more important than ever
to be aware of this toxic mineral.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN"> </span>Reverse osmosis is the best way to <a href="https://www.oregon.gov/oha/PH/HealthyEnvironments/DrinkingWater/SourceWater/Documents/gw/arsenicremoval.pdf"><span style="color: #1155cc;">remove arsenic from drinking water</span></a>. This is
something that should only be performed by a water treatment plant. You should
never try “cleaning” arsenic from your water at home using substances like
chlorine or bleach. <a href="https://saniprofessional.com/is-bleach-toxic/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">Prolonged exposure to or ingestion of bleach can cause
respiratory issues</span></a> or long-term damage to the stomach lining. You’re
simply replacing one toxin with another.</p>
<h2 style="line-height: 150%;"><a name="_l8hwdfsashxa"></a><span lang="EN">Mercury<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN">Mercury is derived from the mineral cinnabar,
but most people know it by this more common name. It is the only metal on earth
that turns into a liquid at room temperature, which used to make it ideal for
thermometers. It is also still used in some fluorescent light bulbs and even
electrical switches. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN"> </span>Unfortunately, mercury is highly toxic and
dangerous. Unlike many other minerals, you don’t even have to ingest it or
breathe it in for it to have negative effects on your body. Mercury can simply
be absorbed through the skin. Mercury can also be found in some fish and
shellfish. Shark, swordfish, and King Mackerel are known for having high levels
of mercury. Fish like tuna, salmon, and catfish all have low levels and are
safe for adults to eat regularly.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal">If you are worried that you may have been
exposed to mercury or ingested it somehow, understanding some of the most
common signs can help you to determine your next step.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN"> </span>Symptoms of mercury poisoning include:</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Vision, speech, and hearing
impairment<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Rashes on the skin<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Weak muscles<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Numbness in the hands and feet<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN">●<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN">Memory loss<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN"> </span>Certain groups of people, such as pregnant
women and young children, are at a greater risk of experiencing these symptoms.
But, no one is “immune” from mercury poisoning, and the cinnabar mineral is
something that should be avoided. If you experience any of the symptoms listed
above, consult a doctor immediately.</p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN"> </span>Knowing more about dangerous minerals can help
you to stay safe. So many other minerals make our lives easier. Even these harmful
ones have had their place. But, keep your distance and avoid contact with them.
There’s a reason they aren’t often used for many purposes anymore. </p></div><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #555555; font-family: inherit; font-size: 10.4px; text-align: center;"></span></p><div style="text-align: left;"><b style="font-family: inherit;"><u>Contributed by Indiana Lee:</u></b><span style="font-family: inherit;"> </span><span style="font-family: Roboto, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><i style="text-align: center;">Indiana Lee is a journalist from the Pacific Northwest with a passion for covering workplace issues, </i><i>environmental protection, social justice, and more. When she is not writing you can find her deep in the mountains with her two dogs. Follow her work on <a href="https://indianaleewrites.contently.com/" style="color: #dd5137; outline: none;" target="_blank">Contently</a>, or reach her at <a href="mailto:indianaleewrites@gmail.com" style="color: #dd5137; outline: none;" target="_blank">indianaleewrites@gmail.com</a></i></span></div><p></p>Muhammad Qasimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09422933048834961238noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8289051954418709326.post-82740473572683929832020-07-14T20:48:00.001+05:002020-07-14T20:48:40.397+05:00The Importance of "Dirty" Rivers<div><p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN"><font face="inherit">Complex river systems are the foundation of
much of what we have to enjoy here on this planet. They support wildlife
populations, provide soil nutrients, and so much more. Humans have had a
profound impact on river systems, however, changes in current practices and
increased focus on restoring rivers to their natural status can make a major
difference in our lives. </font></span></p></div><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiG8rc3X6j5XBbxkMV4vd4Ujjw6Vuwx5FSHae0WoFcnEtzAbrc0qPefbSNrsPSKh3YMUzFh9CDrckq0binTbyB5e-8iQkxaKNHr2akG8nf8EdVi2VWmQR2_zkQlTL_yJ34j3vg-ffJrVXB-/s1280/aa.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="853" data-original-width="1280" height="414" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiG8rc3X6j5XBbxkMV4vd4Ujjw6Vuwx5FSHae0WoFcnEtzAbrc0qPefbSNrsPSKh3YMUzFh9CDrckq0binTbyB5e-8iQkxaKNHr2akG8nf8EdVi2VWmQR2_zkQlTL_yJ34j3vg-ffJrVXB-/w625-h414/aa.png" width="625" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Roboto;">Image Source: </span><span lang="EN"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Roboto; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto;"><a href="https://pixabay.com/photos/horseshoe-bend-grand-canyon-1908283/">pixabay.com</a></span></b></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Roboto; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN" style="color: #151b26; font-family: Roboto; mso-bidi-font-family: Roboto; mso-fareast-font-family: Roboto;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><font face="inherit">Think of your local
river. The place you take a walk when you’re looking for solitude or comfort in
nature. The place you take your children fishing. Or perhaps where you go when
you’re looking for relief from the brutal summer heat.</font></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Chances are, that the river that you love for all the nature it brings into your life really isn’t <i>all</i> that natural. In fact, the majority
of the river systems in our world today have been significantly altered by
humans whether we recognize the changes we have made throughout history or not.
A vast number of our river systems have been greatly simplified — they aren’t
as messy or complex as they really should be.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Though in many ways
these changes have produced some benefit for people at some point in time, they
are catching up with us. Simplified rivers are not as resilient and the
ecological damage we have inadvertently caused could come back to haunt us
within our lifetimes. Small changes in our habits and priorities could lead to
greater changes that will benefit our river ecology and could just save us all.</p><h2 style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><a name="_cnpno0jt2oau"></a><span lang="EN">Complex Rivers<o:p></o:p></span></h2><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN">When we think of <a href="https://scholarworks.boisestate.edu/ideaofnature/27/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">a complex, natural, healthy river</span></a>, we are
really talking about one of the greatest natural feats of engineering available
in the world. These rivers have ebbs and flows that the foundations of the
surrounding ecosystems are built around. They have variability in pitch and
depth that creates homes for numerous species that our society depends upon.</span> </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN">These complex <a href="http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2015/07/sediment-supply-and-importance-of-big.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">rivers collect and move sediment across a landscape</span></a>.
For instance, seasonal flooding refreshes the floodplains with minerals and
nutrients brought down by the river from mountain erosion and decomposing
substances. This influx of sediment is critical for the long-term growth and
survival of native vegetation and forms the basis of the food chain that all
animals are part of.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Finally, <a href="https://blog.oup.com/2019/10/how-rivers-help-climate-change-resilience/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">a complex river is one that is resilient</span></a>. It —
and the surrounding habitats it supports — are able to recover from unexpected
natural events and thrive after a short period. Many experts believe that
healthy rivers and surrounding ecosystems are absolutely critical to our
ability to deal with climate change. Basically, the more healthy, intact
natural areas we have, the better our chances are in the long-run.</p><h2 style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><a name="_kbls16ltn5d3"></a><span lang="EN">Human Impacts<o:p></o:p></span></h2><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN">Once humans entered
the equation things began to change. Typically that which benefited us in the
short-term negatively impacted the entire ecosystem (including future
generations of humans) in the long-term. For instance, dams and overfishing
have powered many of our cities and made many people rich selling food, but
they have altered the geomorphology of streams, ruined quality habitat, and <a href="https://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/nat11.sci.living.eco.lphelpharm/helping-and-harming-human-impact-on-salmon-populations/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">caused populations we could be sustainably harvesting
today to crash</span></a>.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN">Many dams built
back in the day are reaching a point where they are requiring more and more
maintenance to keep up. Many of them are a collecting point for sediment, which
hinders the sediment renewal cycle in floodplains downstream and leads to
decreases in soil and vegetation health. Furthermore, the sediment causes wear
and tear on the dams and <a href="https://www.openchannelflow.com/blog/using-weir-boxes-to-monitor-dam-health"><span style="color: #1155cc;">must be monitored regularly</span></a>.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN">It may come as a
shock with all of the environmental regulations that have been put in place
since the 1960s, but one study conducted in 2013 found that <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/03/half-all-us-rivers-are-too-polluted-our-health/316027/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">nearly half of America’s rivers were still too polluted</span></a>
to be healthy for people, let alone the ecosystems they originally supported.
The current administration has <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2019/12/24/5-major-trump-climate-rollbacks-you-might-have-missed-in-2019.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">worked diligently to roll back numerous environmental
regulations</span></a>, so it can only be assumed that these rivers and
possibly more will remain too polluted.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN">Polluted and
unhealthy rivers also pose a more direct impact on our health. For example,
different forms of human-caused pollut<font face="inherit">ion in rivers can lead to the growth of
different bacterias that can make people seriously ill. It is one of many </font>ways
that <a href="https://www.wgu.edu/blog/diseases-future1908.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">diseases of the future could evolve</span></a> to
pandemic level proportions.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style="font-family: inherit; text-align: center;"><u>Contributed by Indiana Lee:</u></b><span style="font-family: inherit; text-align: center;"> </span><font face="inherit"><i style="text-align: center;">Indiana Lee is a journalist from the Pacific Northwest with a passion for covering workplace issues, </i><i style="background-color: white; color: #555555;">environmental protection, social justice, and more. When she is not writing you can find her deep in the mountains with her two dogs. Follow her work on <a href="https://indianaleewrites.contently.com/" style="color: #dd5137; outline: none;" target="_blank">Contently</a>, or reach her at <a href="mailto:indianaleewrites@gmail.com" style="color: #dd5137; outline: none;" target="_blank">indianaleewrites@gmail.com</a></i></font></p></td></tr></tbody></table>Muhammad Qasimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09422933048834961238noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8289051954418709326.post-85642013250328839852020-06-12T21:28:00.001+05:002020-07-14T20:47:10.769+05:00Top 5 Little Known Geological Jobs in 2020<div style="text-align: justify;"><font face="inherit"><br /></font></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjF-njz39HAQncI8R5cUJwddbNwHyx3XZaVSNey8hIRbCq43OGk0W0TcLbHd6pCDXsRMAmWVbTqEJ8fvh5HWmDnGBK6tj5Wkyj6vdhuZO8HX2aOhYttutSN5ycNK_JpFMM2U1DWgwoCpH09/s800/11.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><font face="inherit"><img border="0" data-original-height="500" data-original-width="800" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjF-njz39HAQncI8R5cUJwddbNwHyx3XZaVSNey8hIRbCq43OGk0W0TcLbHd6pCDXsRMAmWVbTqEJ8fvh5HWmDnGBK6tj5Wkyj6vdhuZO8HX2aOhYttutSN5ycNK_JpFMM2U1DWgwoCpH09/d/11.png" /></font></a></div><div style="text-align: center;"><font face="inherit">Image: <span lang="EN" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="https://unsplash.com/photos/O0dEH-UPj68"><b><span style="color: #1155cc;">Unsplash</span></b></a></span><b><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b></font></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><font face="inherit"><br /></font></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN"><font face="inherit">In these uncertain times, Science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields are all the rage among job seekers
looking for stable and timeless careers. In fact, <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/nsb/sei/edTool/data/workforce-03.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">employment in science and engineering occupations</span></a>
was expected to grow by 18.7% between 2010 and 2020, across all STEM fields.
While jobs in the physical sciences aren’t growing as rapidly as computer and
mathematical scientist occupations, plenty of opportunities exist for those <a href="http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2015/10/geology-degree.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">who hold a geology degree</span></a>. <o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><font face="inherit">While many laymen might think geology is just
the study of rocks, geologists know that the field has much more to offer, and
prospective job seekers with an interest in the Earth’s composition have
numerous sub-disciplines to choose from. Some geological jobs allow you to
explore outer space while others keep you firmly rooted on Earth, creating maps
or studying the topography of glaciers. Let’s explore five little-known
geological jobs that promote a greater understanding of Earth and its history.</font></p>
<h2 style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><font face="inherit"><a name="_cnpno0jt2oau"></a><span lang="EN">1.
Astrogeologist<o:p></o:p></span></font></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN"><font face="inherit">Humanity has long looked to the stars for
inspiration, and today’s innovators are working hard to make space tourism a
reality. Astrogeologists are among the hard-working professionals who keep the
dream of space exploration alive. It’s likely that Richard Branson has at least
one astrogeologist on his payroll at Virgin Galactic, a spaceflight company
founded in 2004. <o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><font face="inherit">Interestingly, however, astrogeology doesn’t
have a direct connection to spaceflight per se. Instead, those within the
discipline of astrogeology study the growth and evolution of celestial bodies
including planets, asteroids, comets, and moons. Astrogeology is also known as
planetary geology, and trained astrogeologists may create planetary maps,
conduct the remote sensing of celestial surfaces, and more.</font></p>
<h2 style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><font face="inherit"><a name="_kbls16ltn5d3"></a><span lang="EN">2.
Cartographer<o:p></o:p></span></font></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN"><font face="inherit">Astrogeology has much in common with
cartography, as both disciplines involve exploration and are deeply rooted in
human history. Cartographers are responsible for making maps and ensuring their
precision. Whether those maps are in paper or digital form, accuracy is
essential to a cartographer’s job. <o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><font face="inherit">Cartographers should hold <a href="https://online.maryville.edu/blog/blog-unique-jobs-for-math-majors/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">at least a bachelor’s degree in mathematics</span></a>,
according to Maryville University. Further, “a combination of experience and/or
further education in cartography, geology, or civil engineering” is vital for
map-making professionals. And make no mistake: The competition is fierce in the
realm of cartography, which is ranked No. 4 in the <i>U.S. News and World Report</i>’s list of <a href="https://money.usnews.com/careers/best-jobs/cartographer"><span style="color: #1155cc;">best engineering jobs</span></a>.</font></p>
<h2 style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><font face="inherit"><a name="_l8hwdfsashxa"></a><span lang="EN">3.
Glaciologist<o:p></o:p></span></font></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN"><font face="inherit">Climate change is directly linked to geology,
as the negative effects of the phenomenon become increasingly apparent. It’s no
secret that the Earth’s glaciers are melting at a rapid rate, and glaciologists
are on the front lines of the phenomenon. <a href="https://www.eco.ca/career-profiles/glaciologist/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">Glaciologists study the formation and movement of glaciers</span></a>,
both arctic and alpine, as well as ice caps and sheets. <o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><font face="inherit">While collaboration with other glaciologists
and professionals is part of the job, plenty of solo work is involved.
Furthermore, a glaciologist’s office is often in a remote location, and jackets
are always required outdoors.</font></p>
<h2 style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><font face="inherit"><a name="_misxtn8ik38d"></a><span lang="EN">4.
Petroleum Geologist<o:p></o:p></span></font></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN"><font face="inherit">If you’re interested in exploring coastlines
and cultivating sustainability, you may be interested in working as a petroleum
geologist, arguably the occupation least involved with actual rocks on this
list. But make no mistake, this dynamic and lucrative occupation is still
firmly rooted in STEM and in the field of geology. <o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><font face="inherit">Petroleum geologists work to determine the
location and amount of combustible fuel in a particular area. The job toes the
line between land and sea, and the job requirements are a bit more intensive
than in some other geological disciplines. Generally speaking, a master’s
degree is preferred for all prospective petroleum geologist candidates, along
with appropriate certification such as the <a href="https://www.aapg.org/divisions/dpa/certification"><span style="color: #1155cc;">Certification for Petroleum Geology</span></a> (CPG).</font></p>
<h2 style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><font face="inherit"><a name="_wao7c96d2eqy"></a><span lang="EN">5.
Geomorphologist<o:p></o:p></span></font></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN"><font face="inherit">The Earth is made up of countless components,
some of which can change the very nature of our planet’s surface. The study of
the way in which the Earth’s surface is morphed and altered by oceans, rivers,
air, mountains, and beyond is called geomorphology. Typically, geomorphologists
specialize in a single area such as sand, rivers, or rock as well as mineral
formations.<o:p></o:p></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><font face="inherit">Information gathered by geomorphologists is
used in a variety of applications such as healthcare. Minerals and rocks aren’t
always as innocuous as they seem. Asbestos, for example, is a naturally
occurring silicate mineral commonly used in construction materials. It’s also
extremely dangerous, and prolonged exposure to asbestos fibers can cause cancer
including an <a href="http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2017/01/mesothelioma.html"><span style="color: #1155cc;">aggressive lung cancer known as mesothelioma</span></a>.</font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><font face="inherit">Geomorphologists are integral to the <a href="https://baronandbudd.com/news/can-mesothelioma-prevented/"><span style="color: #1155cc;">mesothelioma prevention process</span></a> by continuing
to study the forms and processes of asbestos. Searching for mineral-based
alternatives and regularly assessing asbestos risks at job sites may also be
part of the job of a trained geomorphologist.</font></p>
<h2 style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><font face="inherit"><a name="_ak70m9wtkkbt"></a><span lang="EN">Final
Thoughts<o:p></o:p></span></font></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN"><font face="inherit">Studying rock formations is just the beginning
for today’s geologists. Workers in the versatile discipline of geology might
head to Antarctica to study glaciers, observe and map out a changing coastline,
or help plan a major oil pipeline. No matter the geologic field you hope to
specialize in, a strong background in STEM subjects can help you stand out. <o:p></o:p></font></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN"><b><u><br /></u></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN"><b><u>Contributed by Indiana Lee:</u></b> <i>Indiana Lee is a journalist from the
Pacific Northwest with a passion for covering workplace issues, </i></span><i>environmental
protection, social justice, and more. When she is not writing you can find her
deep in the mountains with her two dogs. Follow her work on <a href="https://indianaleewrites.contently.com/" target="_blank">Contently</a>,
or reach her at <a href="mailto:indianaleewrites@gmail.com" target="_blank">indianaleewrites@gmail.com</a></i></div></div>Muhammad Qasimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09422933048834961238noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8289051954418709326.post-53864039375594341252020-05-12T15:38:00.001+05:002020-05-12T15:38:27.993+05:00The Science of Gemstones [Guest Article] <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><font size="4"><span lang="EN-GB">Gemmology, also known as the science of
gemstones, is the study of precious gemstones. It mainly focuses on identifying
gemstones, confirming its authenticity, evaluating the quality, determining the
origin, and disclosing the treatment used for the gemstone. A major part of it
requires distinguishing between natural gemstones and synthetic counterparts
and imitations. Earlier it was difficult to identify synthetic crystals but
that is not much of a problem these days. Gemmologists also </span><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">find out</span></font><span lang="EN-GB"><font size="4"> the
treatment used for gemstones as it directly influences the price of a gemstone.
In most cases, original gemstones undergo physical and chemical treatment to
enhance the aesthetic appeal.</font></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzgO_LxA57v_J_HbEyeCdK2z4vzA7JBQoyWyHVSQUGKgLc7yDnzRqIahNrF_btkcV5_CGemBCwipZt_Iuf7jxF6QBRZigblJWet9GcafNvLxMAW7_plPWIqRpZlSjfUbLxtuhAeyZaPKlT/" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="428" data-original-width="1366" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzgO_LxA57v_J_HbEyeCdK2z4vzA7JBQoyWyHVSQUGKgLc7yDnzRqIahNrF_btkcV5_CGemBCwipZt_Iuf7jxF6QBRZigblJWet9GcafNvLxMAW7_plPWIqRpZlSjfUbLxtuhAeyZaPKlT/d/ok.jpg" /></a></div><span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span><p></p><div style="text-align: justify;"><p class="MsoNormal"><font size="4"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="line-height: 115%;">Origins of </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 115%;">S</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="line-height: 115%;">ome </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 115%;">F</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="line-height: 115%;">amous </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 115%;">G</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="line-height: 115%;">emstones <o:p></o:p></span></b></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: large;">Gemmologists have a set of skills to
identify where </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: large;">exactly </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: large;">the gemstone </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: large;">was</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: large;"> mined from. Gemstones usually have certain characteristics typical
of the origin. Many consumers also have a special preference for gemstones </span><span lang="IN" style="font-size: large;">belonging to a particular origin</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: large;">. for example, <a href="https://www.gempundit.com/gemstones/blue-sapphire">Blue sapphire</a> from
Kashmir, Rubies from Burma, Emerald from Columbia have always been in great
demand. Such gemstones cost comparatively more than similar gemstones from
other localities.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><o:p><font size="4"> </font></o:p></span><span style="font-size: large;">Kashmir sapphires are valued as they
contain the best specimens. These gemstones are seen to have an excellent
cornflower blue tint. Most describe the hue as ‘blue velvet’. While some
Burmese and Ceylonese sapphires also come relatively close in quality, only the
Kashmir Sapphire continues to rule the Sapphire World. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><font size="4"><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="line-height: 115%;">Difference </span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 115%;">B</span></b><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="line-height: 115%;">etween </span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 115%;">S</span></b><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="line-height: 115%;">ynthetic and
</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 115%;">N</span></b><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="line-height: 115%;">atural </span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 115%;">G</span></b><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="line-height: 115%;">emstones<o:p></o:p></span></b></font></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: large;">Classification of gemstones is necessary
when dealing with them. Natural gemstones are the ones that grow naturally in
nature over the years. On the other hand, "Synthetic" gemstones are
those which exactly mimic natural gemstones but are created by man in a
laboratory. They possess the same physical, chemical, and optical properties as
the natural gemstone. The most common of these are synthetic Diamonds,
Synthetic Sapphires, and synthetic Quartz. A layman can not identify the
difference between synthetic and natural gemstone. Then comes the “Imitation
gemstones” which basically have a similar appearance as the original gemstones.
For example, blue glass, polystyrene, or zirconia. The most popular impression
of a diamond is zirconia (synthetic ZrO2). Zirconia cannot be easily
distinguished from a diamond in the same shape.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="line-height: 115%;"><font size="4">How to check the quality and related
certifications<o:p></o:p></font></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: large;">Gemstones are not only used for Jewelry
purposes but also for their astrological benefit and healing properties. It is
crucial to be assured of the authenticity of the gemstone to avoid any negative
impact. Many dealers trade fake gemstones in the market to maximize profit. One
should be aware of the tricks used by such dears to dupe their customers. It is
always desirable to get a gemstone from a reputed seller who is happy to answer
all your queries with utmost honesty. There is no better way than to invest
your hard-earned money in a real, lab certified gemstone as it ensures the best
value for your money. When buying a rare and expensive gemstone that too of a
popular origin, one should be extra cautious and must look for certificates
issued by the reputed gem labs like IGI, GTL, GIA, GRS, etc.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><font size="4"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="line-height: 115%;">Pricing </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 115%;">F</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="line-height: 115%;">actors of </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="line-height: 115%;">G</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="line-height: 115%;">emstones<o:p></o:p></span></b></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><font size="4">Before choosing a gemstone, it is necessary
to know how a minor variation in quality, size, or origin can bring a huge
variation in the gemstone price. Color, clarity, cut and carat weight are some
of the key price grading factors. If you are planning to buy a gemstone for
astrological use, it is important to ensure that the gemstone is natural and
free from any sort of treatment (heating, chemical treatment, dying, etc.).
Selecting a gemstone from a reputed origin is one good way to ensure quality.</font></span></p></div>Muhammad Qasimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09422933048834961238noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8289051954418709326.post-42873621107306770242020-02-25T11:47:00.000+05:002020-02-25T11:48:45.812+05:00Where does energy in U.S come from? [Guest Article]<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
</div>
<h3>
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 11pt; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-c1270f5a-7fff-7b61-fd77-d14484d99d92"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline;"><i>From burning firewood to using electricity from renewable sources, the home energy landscape has drastically changed over the last 150 years. This article and infographic explore the history of energy use and what the sustainable future may look like. </i></span></span></span></h3>
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 11pt; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">We no longer have to gather firewood for our wood-burning stoves to keep us warm at night, but there are a variety of energy sources used in each home. Most homes in the U.S. run on either electricity or natural gas, or a combination of both, but homeowners may also employ solar panels or even residential wind-powered solutions too. </span><br />
<span id="docs-internal-guid-1fcfb825-7fff-57c6-6167-6e62786f2b55"><br /></span>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;">Looking at the charts below, you can see that energy consumption has grown significantly each year and in 2018, it hit an all-time high. However, you’ll notice some changes in the way we use each energy source. Coal is the only energy source below that has suffered a decline and renewable energy has recently surpassed nuclear energy. As new technologies are developed, we are finding new ways to meet the increased energy demand. The future of energy consumption will look very different than it does today. </span></div>
<br />
<img alt="home energy use infographic" border="0" src="https://www.thezebra.com/resources/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/history-of-home-energy-use.GIF.1a.gif" /><br />
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<span id="docs-internal-guid-b7a476d3-7fff-8686-2753-7202c2f35db5"></span><br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span id="docs-internal-guid-b7a476d3-7fff-8686-2753-7202c2f35db5"><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Where does energy in US come from?</span></span></div>
<span id="docs-internal-guid-b7a476d3-7fff-8686-2753-7202c2f35db5">
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 11pt; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">By no surprise, oil has been the largest and most popular source of energy. Since the 1950s, oil and natural gas were used to heat homes. Now in 2020, you know that petroleum is used for many other reasons and industries, from powering our cars to packaging products in plastic. </span></div>
<br /><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 11pt; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Although coal was another popular source of energy, it has been on the decline for the last few decades. It’s less efficient than other sources and negatively impacts the environment. To answer that problem, the U.S. has been investing in renewable energy sources. Wind, solar, and geothermal energy are proving to be great resources for a clean future.</span></div>
<br /><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 11pt; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Are renewables the future?</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 11pt; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Although only 11% of U.S. energy production comes from renewable sources, it is expected to grow. Solar, wind, and geothermal technology energy are three of the top sources for renewable energy. Among those, wind is the fastest growing and judging from the production map, it has wide geographic potential as well. Geothermal energy, which uses underground temperatures to transfer energy, is becoming a popular alternative for home heating and cooling. Of course, residential solar panels are gaining wide adoption as well. As renewable energy options become more available, the energy consumption landscape is likely to move toward a more sustainable future. </span></div>
<br /><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 11pt; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">This infographic from </span><a href="https://www.thezebra.com/homeowners-insurance/" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 11pt; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Zebra</span></a><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 11pt; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> walks through the </span><a href="https://www.thezebra.com/resources/home/history-of-home-energy-use" style="text-decoration-line: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 11pt; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">history of energy use</span></a><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 11pt; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, where energy is produced, and what the future of energy may look like.
<span id="docs-internal-guid-85383ba8-7fff-3bcb-9a0e-21e63ebddf6c"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline;">Author bio: </span><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline;">Amanda Tallent is a writer who covers everything from business to lifestyle. She creates content to help people live more informed and confident lives. </span></div>
</span>
<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: small; white-space: normal;">Want to write guest blog for us? See guidelines </span><a href="http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/p/contribution-to-lg.html" style="font-family: "helvetica neue", arial, helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: medium; white-space: normal;" target="_blank">here</a>
</span></span></div>
Muhammad Qasimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09422933048834961238noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8289051954418709326.post-87135456699751859192019-04-15T00:44:00.000+05:002019-04-15T00:49:40.688+05:00Factors Controlling the Shape of a River Delta<div class="" data-block="true" data-editor="2dlcu" data-offset-key="d4n77-0-0" style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; white-space: pre-wrap;">
<div class="_1mf _1mj" data-offset-key="d4n77-0-0" style="direction: ltr; position: relative;">
<span data-offset-key="d4n77-0-0"><b><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: large;">What is a Delta?</span></b></span></div>
</div>
<div class="" data-block="true" data-editor="2dlcu" data-offset-key="f04hu-0-0" style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; white-space: pre-wrap;">
<div class="_1mf _1mj" data-offset-key="f04hu-0-0" style="direction: ltr; position: relative;">
<span data-offset-key="f04hu-0-0"><span style="font-family: inherit;">A delta is an accumulation of sediments at the mouth of a river that may consist of a network of distributary channels, wetlands, bars, tidal flats, natural levees and beaches that typically shift from on location to another. Delta shape is dependent of dominant current conditions where the mouth of the river: tide-, sea wave-, and storm-dominated.</span></span></div>
<div class="_1mf _1mj" data-offset-key="f04hu-0-0" style="direction: ltr; font-size: 14px; position: relative;">
<span data-offset-key="f04hu-0-0"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="font-size: 14px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjl8S44_jNcNHLiW6XuHXSIdI07JN5dVaMbYoZuIOyqPCfHV-a4hyphenhyphenBVJdbxjvIDxVeZ4LYjwgAF-LKzrgnPmKCjukv_pVzCEiGRt8-xz_-EhPlz9Y_M1uca2E0yL3JvJcnTAkT-rZ9BXyr0/s1600/delta_Lena_Siberia.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="800" data-original-width="800" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjl8S44_jNcNHLiW6XuHXSIdI07JN5dVaMbYoZuIOyqPCfHV-a4hyphenhyphenBVJdbxjvIDxVeZ4LYjwgAF-LKzrgnPmKCjukv_pVzCEiGRt8-xz_-EhPlz9Y_M1uca2E0yL3JvJcnTAkT-rZ9BXyr0/s640/delta_Lena_Siberia.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Lena River Delta, Siberia.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b>Factors that control the shape of a River Delta?</b></span></span><b style="font-size: xx-large;"> </b></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></b></span>
<br />
<div class="" data-block="true" data-editor="2dlcu" data-offset-key="d4n77-0-0" style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; white-space: pre-wrap;">
<div class="_1mf _1mj" data-offset-key="d4n77-0-0" style="direction: ltr; position: relative;">
<span data-offset-key="d4n77-0-0"><span style="font-family: inherit;">River deltas around the world are very different. The shape of a river delta is controlled by a variety of factors including:</span></span></div>
</div>
<div class="" data-block="true" data-editor="2dlcu" data-offset-key="2gcpj-0-0" style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; white-space: pre-wrap;">
<div class="_1mf _1mj" data-offset-key="2gcpj-0-0" style="direction: ltr; position: relative;">
<span data-offset-key="2gcpj-0-0"><span style="font-family: inherit;">• the volume of river discharge. </span></span></div>
</div>
<div class="" data-block="true" data-editor="2dlcu" data-offset-key="7rm1d-0-0" style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; white-space: pre-wrap;">
<div class="_1mf _1mj" data-offset-key="7rm1d-0-0" style="direction: ltr; position: relative;">
<span data-offset-key="7rm1d-0-0"><span style="font-family: inherit;">• the volume of sediment being deposited in a delta region.</span></span></div>
</div>
<div class="" data-block="true" data-editor="2dlcu" data-offset-key="bfk1v-0-0" style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; white-space: pre-wrap;">
<div class="_1mf _1mj" data-offset-key="bfk1v-0-0" style="direction: ltr; position: relative;">
<span data-offset-key="bfk1v-0-0"><span style="font-family: inherit;">• vegetation cover in delta regions capable of trapping sediments.</span></span></div>
</div>
<div class="" data-block="true" data-editor="2dlcu" data-offset-key="1ajc7-0-0" style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; white-space: pre-wrap;">
<div class="_1mf _1mj" data-offset-key="1ajc7-0-0" style="direction: ltr; position: relative;">
<span data-offset-key="1ajc7-0-0"><span style="font-family: inherit;">• tidal range conditions where the river enters the ocean.</span></span></div>
</div>
<div class="" data-block="true" data-editor="2dlcu" data-offset-key="bbvpe-0-0" style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; white-space: pre-wrap;">
<div class="_1mf _1mj" data-offset-key="bbvpe-0-0" style="direction: ltr; position: relative;">
<span data-offset-key="bbvpe-0-0"><span style="font-family: inherit;">• storm-related climate and oceanographic conditions.</span></span></div>
</div>
<div class="" data-block="true" data-editor="2dlcu" data-offset-key="9gcsi-0-0" style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; white-space: pre-wrap;">
<div class="_1mf _1mj" data-offset-key="9gcsi-0-0" style="direction: ltr; position: relative;">
<span data-offset-key="9gcsi-0-0"><span style="font-family: inherit;">• coastal geography (mountains or plains) in coastal regions.</span></span></div>
</div>
<div class="" data-block="true" data-editor="2dlcu" data-offset-key="f79cj-0-0" style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; white-space: pre-wrap;">
<div class="_1mf _1mj" data-offset-key="f79cj-0-0" style="direction: ltr; position: relative;">
<span data-offset-key="f79cj-0-0"><span style="font-family: inherit;">• human activity is now a dominant factor influencing the shape of river deltas.</span></span></div>
<div class="_1mf _1mj" data-offset-key="f79cj-0-0" style="direction: ltr; font-size: 14px; position: relative;">
<span data-offset-key="f79cj-0-0"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="font-size: 14px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgfMSLNldlNONYRSjXalu2rC2uf1HkgFqTgKFw8BcetCT80L5eAWLwUOFkGQBJOa3UJ5gTEJ2qZoATVmomPTcAmeLFDCZJJrLDTbPgHl4zJQKfgQkO-NdLGpAa62bT48ZSnElzDD-At61XM/s1600/delta_yellow.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="800" data-original-width="800" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgfMSLNldlNONYRSjXalu2rC2uf1HkgFqTgKFw8BcetCT80L5eAWLwUOFkGQBJOa3UJ5gTEJ2qZoATVmomPTcAmeLFDCZJJrLDTbPgHl4zJQKfgQkO-NdLGpAa62bT48ZSnElzDD-At61XM/s640/delta_yellow.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Yellow River Delta, China</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0eh2O7nolsgEhi2DaUpwMerVYWD-hSOGDH0kwUBUFZ-7Uhh7cW-BFXLyVBWay2XBVj-W7o6EXQ4PlIit9MjkeJOM8uFD4jyKQYn_h-AMKRx92hgjcexJeV1ylaMlKqcyYKQnfJu7ozmq0/s1600/delta_nile.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="565" data-original-width="496" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0eh2O7nolsgEhi2DaUpwMerVYWD-hSOGDH0kwUBUFZ-7Uhh7cW-BFXLyVBWay2XBVj-W7o6EXQ4PlIit9MjkeJOM8uFD4jyKQYn_h-AMKRx92hgjcexJeV1ylaMlKqcyYKQnfJu7ozmq0/s640/delta_nile.jpg" width="560" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Nile River Delta, Egypt.</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">River deltas like the Amazon and Indus Rivers discharge into the ocean where a high tidal range influence flow into and out of the mouth of the rivers. Some river delta region are highly effected by erosion effects of storms and high wave energy. Infrequent but intense superstorms impact the shape of deltas and shoreline, such as the impact of hurricanes on the Gulf Coast. </span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiCFhnfaBoluPrUFL0uYumJjzPrERvBNxi0XP-DuTzH7ZgXvFUcITxYNhAX6YkAojmb5Rl_HHwdFmaSYT-kGOAbU-JEjaaE8kuNJ3xKQG0vwXj1tCW-rSiSeZawjmO2iXiEguKyMdLeM_G0/s1600/delta_indus.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="640" data-original-width="640" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiCFhnfaBoluPrUFL0uYumJjzPrERvBNxi0XP-DuTzH7ZgXvFUcITxYNhAX6YkAojmb5Rl_HHwdFmaSYT-kGOAbU-JEjaaE8kuNJ3xKQG0vwXj1tCW-rSiSeZawjmO2iXiEguKyMdLeM_G0/s640/delta_indus.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Indus River Delta, Pakistan</td></tr>
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Human activity is responsible for the irregular shape of the Birdfoot Delta on the Mississippi River created by the constant dredging to keep shipping channels clear. The construction of dams and diversion of water out of the Colorado River has essentially shut of the supply of water and sediment to the Colorado River Delta in the Gulf of California.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgv10CqzF3GlBCeniGF4RKyceWEVEZxUT1nZpKJEO2vyn0hzxWBHMf7o3iFBHbajpafwmYe5zhDR7EuteY1oEKyvoixrFrAmqAqWwiQ7KeQ2kUk2EnSH6snoLXu1Bwdav0JAtGoxXarHke4/s1600/delta_mississippi.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="800" data-original-width="800" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgv10CqzF3GlBCeniGF4RKyceWEVEZxUT1nZpKJEO2vyn0hzxWBHMf7o3iFBHbajpafwmYe5zhDR7EuteY1oEKyvoixrFrAmqAqWwiQ7KeQ2kUk2EnSH6snoLXu1Bwdav0JAtGoxXarHke4/s640/delta_mississippi.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Mississippi Birdfoot Delta is largely controlled by Human activities</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhUZDhpI8Ko3Rzc2XO3LaFcBsFU6h_dTmU2OOyHQM2kViDnnN3h3Bz7iOa88SB5N_pXAGzmr-x74DWTR3-6KNFzGJMztTf5dv9ZABl41muhDLxaaCO48dIAlN-Ju8kgq3FntD3JaRN9JSyD/s1600/delta_mississippi_age.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="962" data-original-width="1280" height="480" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhUZDhpI8Ko3Rzc2XO3LaFcBsFU6h_dTmU2OOyHQM2kViDnnN3h3Bz7iOa88SB5N_pXAGzmr-x74DWTR3-6KNFzGJMztTf5dv9ZABl41muhDLxaaCO48dIAlN-Ju8kgq3FntD3JaRN9JSyD/s640/delta_mississippi_age.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Changes to Mississippi River Delta over the last 4000 years ago.</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="516" data-original-width="798" height="408" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhb3QUOpN91cMbf7K2K2orxI6osaHxM1rSCL7qZrDJTcRMM1CZ2LRxMS8dD2GWPYscfbkaAq_2j3fxPeeFksat6eJnQngl9HE_BXjDss4QrppIMbXUAu3AdE0DEq-YYE3Fy_DfYlWYGzpD2/s640/delta_colorado-river.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="640" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A river no more. Very little water makes it to the Colorado River Delta<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhb3QUOpN91cMbf7K2K2orxI6osaHxM1rSCL7qZrDJTcRMM1CZ2LRxMS8dD2GWPYscfbkaAq_2j3fxPeeFksat6eJnQngl9HE_BXjDss4QrppIMbXUAu3AdE0DEq-YYE3Fy_DfYlWYGzpD2/s1600/delta_colorado-river.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></a><br /></div>
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhb3QUOpN91cMbf7K2K2orxI6osaHxM1rSCL7qZrDJTcRMM1CZ2LRxMS8dD2GWPYscfbkaAq_2j3fxPeeFksat6eJnQngl9HE_BXjDss4QrppIMbXUAu3AdE0DEq-YYE3Fy_DfYlWYGzpD2/s1600/delta_colorado-river.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></a><br />
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Thanks to Dr. Phil Stoffer for assisting in publishing this article.</div>
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Muhammad Qasimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09422933048834961238noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8289051954418709326.post-47053253344366548232019-04-03T14:29:00.002+05:002022-10-10T05:46:42.220+05:00Designing Buildings to Reduce the Impact of Earthquakes<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span face=""arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="font-family: arial;">Earthquakes rip through our cities, with seismic waves that tear down our buildings and take away lives in the process. Just two years ago, in September of 2017, a 7.1 earthquake thundered throughout Mexico City and killed nearly 230 people. </span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: arial;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-c88d0440-7fff-87b4-5349-5e2b56c4fab4"><span face=""arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif"><br /></span></span>
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</span><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span face=""arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="font-family: arial;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The main cause of damage isn’t from the earthquake but from the collapsing structures. Historical and pre-earthquake safe buildings are not equipped to shield themselves from these natural disasters, leading to loss of lives and imm</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">ense costs. </span></span></div>
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How Earthquakes Wreak Havok</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span face=""arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="font-family: arial;">On average, collapsing buildings cause $2.1 billion in damage and 10,000 deaths a year. Let’s analyze how earthquakes damage manmade structures. </span></span></div>
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<span id="docs-internal-guid-ce26e3e5-7fff-a5e5-ac37-ecabbb8eddfa"><span face=""arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span face=""arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="font-family: arial;">The shockwaves from earthquakes force horizontal pressure on buildings. Without the right structure to divert this energy away from the building, they collapse—killing the people inside of them. That’s because buildings are unable to handle side forces. Although they’re able to handle vertical forces, earthquakes attack the core of the building. The horizontal forces strike the columns, floors, beams, and connectors that hold them together—rupturing support frames.</span></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjlZ0o4dCTVcX-pCQPHL01E9zBllG3EbCjYudy8e7EgGVTq6HekeK7H7yAWuzTOaDEESdOVnIFwh_sMLKH1jxwblvTEHMXdtaPdavqiIo8XgUWg6FlwxVtsZTaZaTmVFnOZbFsXpQRke4eg/s1600/Capture.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="415" data-original-width="744" height="355" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjlZ0o4dCTVcX-pCQPHL01E9zBllG3EbCjYudy8e7EgGVTq6HekeK7H7yAWuzTOaDEESdOVnIFwh_sMLKH1jxwblvTEHMXdtaPdavqiIo8XgUWg6FlwxVtsZTaZaTmVFnOZbFsXpQRke4eg/s640/Capture.JPG" width="640" /></span></a></div>
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How to Make a Building Earthquake-Proof </span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span face=""arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif"><span id="docs-internal-guid-decc3d82-7fff-1a00-d620-b9abe7fabe47" style="font-family: arial;"></span></span></span></div>
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<span face=""arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="font-family: arial;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">There are many methods that engineers use to make structures more earthquake-proof, they make improvements to the foundation, structure, material flexibility as well as preventing waves from hitting the buildings. Let’s examine the methods used to help buildings resist this deadly force. </span><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">For a visualization of how these methods work check out the visuals at </span><span style="color: #1155cc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://www.bigrentz.com/blog/earthquake-proof-buildings" style="text-decoration-line: none;">earthquake-proof visual</a></span><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> by </span><span style="color: #1155cc; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="https://www.bigrentz.com/" style="text-decoration-line: none;">BigRentz</a>.</span><span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: arial;"><span face=""arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="white-space: pre-wrap;">1. </span><span face=""arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="color: #434343; white-space: pre-wrap;">Build A Flexible Foundation</span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span face=""arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="font-family: arial;">One way to prevent seismic waves from traveling throughout a building is to use flexible pads made of steel and rubber to hold the building's foundation. In this manner, the pads “lift” the building above ground and absorb the earthquakes’ shocks.</span></span></div>
<h3 dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 4pt; margin-top: 16pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #434343; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span face=""arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="font-family: arial; font-size: small;">2. Damping </span></span></h3>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span face=""arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="font-family: arial;">Engineers also use shock absorbers (similar to the ones you find in cars) for earthquake resistant buildings. These fixtures help reduce the magnitude felt from the shockwaves for the building. They’re also responsible for slowing down the life-threatening movement when buildings sway after a quake. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b id="docs-internal-guid-26504a1e-7fff-92e1-95a7-82206aee3342" style="font-weight: normal;"><span face=""arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span face=""arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="font-family: arial;">To accomplish this, geological engineers use:</span></span></div>
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<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: arial;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span face=""arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif">Vibrational Control Devices</span></span></span></div><span style="font-family: arial;">
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</ul>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span face=""arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="font-family: arial;">By placing dampers between a column and a beam at each building level, they use pistons and oil to convert the motion into heat. The heat absorbs the shocks felt from the earthquake. </span></span></div>
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<li dir="ltr" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;"><span style="font-family: arial;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span face=""arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif">Pendulum Power</span></span></span></div><span style="font-family: arial;">
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<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span face=""arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif">This method is used primarily in skyscrapers. Engineers use a large weight and hydraulics that move opposite of the earthquake’s motion to help reduce the effects of any seismic shocks that hit the building.
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3. <span style="color: #434343;">Shield Buildings from Vibrations</span></span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span face=""arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif">Concrete and plastic rings are built underneath three feet beneath the building in expanding rings. These rings are sometimes called, “seismic invisibility cloaks” because they keep waves from reaching the building. These rings channel shockwaves so that they move to the outer circles and divert away from the building.
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4. <span style="color: #434343;">Reinforce the Building’s Structure</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span face=""arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif">Shear walls and cross braces help shift earthquake movement away to the foundation. Horizontal frames are also useful, as they redistribute forces to the building’s columns and walls. Lastly, moment-resisting frames help keep joints rigid, simultaneously allowing the structure to bend for safety.
</span></span><span face=""arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="white-space: pre-wrap;">
5. <span style="color: #434343;">Use Resistant Materials</span></span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span face=""arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="font-family: arial;">It’s vital to note that the building materials you use have a huge effect on a building’s stability. Two of the best materials for earthquake-resistance are structural steel and wood. There are also innovative materials that are being incorporated into structures like bamboo and memory alloy (flexible but returns to its shape easily). </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span face=""arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif" style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span face=""arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif">With the right geological engineering practices, we can make cities safer from unpredictable earthquakes. Many cities have implemented earthquake-safe codes and requirements for new construction. Although making structures completely earthquake-proof is difficult to achieve—the goal is to keep buildings standing tall and people inside them safe.
Check out the </span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222;">5600+ words guide on </span><a href="https://modernpaint.org/disaster-preparedness-guide/"><span style="color: #1155cc;"><span style="background-color: white;">251 Ultimate Disaster Preparedness Safety Tips and Procedures</span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222;">.</span></a></span></div>
Muhammad Qasimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09422933048834961238noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8289051954418709326.post-2639799342709248722019-01-05T05:36:00.002+05:002019-01-05T05:36:59.702+05:00Happy New Year (2019) from Learning Geology Team<iframe allowfullscreen="true" allowtransparency="true" frameborder="0" height="315" scrolling="no" src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/video.php?href=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2Fgeologylearn%2Fvideos%2F2015234442102347%2F&show_text=0&width=560" style="border: none; overflow: hidden;" width="560"></iframe>Muhammad Qasimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09422933048834961238noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8289051954418709326.post-23449752680176534472017-12-30T23:25:00.000+05:002017-12-30T23:32:19.333+05:00Guest Blog: How Speleothems Are Used To Determine Past Climates?<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white;">About author: </span></b><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 16px;">Alex Graham is an undergraduate student at </span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 16px;">University of Newcastle, </span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 16px;">Australia. He is</span><span style="background-color: white;"> interested in Geology as a whole but his major interests include fluvial processes, karst systems and ocean science. During his visit to</span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 16px;"> New Zealand, he has obeserved the glow worms in Waitomo Caves and spelunking in Nikau Caves.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b><span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white;"><span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Speleothems, more commonly known
as stalactites or stalagmites, consist of calcium carbonate (calcite or
aragonite) crystals of various dimensions, ranging from just a few micrometers
to several centimetres in length, which generally have their growth axis perpendicular
to the growth surface. Speleothems are formed through the deposition of calcium
carbonate minerals in karst systems, providing archives of information on past
climates, vegetation types and hydrology, particularly groundwater and
precipitation. However, they can also provide information on anthropogenic
impacts, landscape evolution, volcanism and tectonic evolution in mineral deposits
formed in cave systems. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhjyA5Wdln5lzrQOzXbPi1VXzw-RmrVKGgX-WxEDpFidN5p49IgmEorBKePnj9VcrBeVO_qRr4wDHMJBmR5ds7dAz8pp6hvw4zS6P9PUNHF6RphidW_7nvyxVfEEcvjh85KYsAAIYt2EmOq/s1600/Screen+Shot+2017-11-08+at+8.10.18+pm.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="309" data-original-width="424" height="291" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhjyA5Wdln5lzrQOzXbPi1VXzw-RmrVKGgX-WxEDpFidN5p49IgmEorBKePnj9VcrBeVO_qRr4wDHMJBmR5ds7dAz8pp6hvw4zS6P9PUNHF6RphidW_7nvyxVfEEcvjh85KYsAAIYt2EmOq/s400/Screen+Shot+2017-11-08+at+8.10.18+pm.png" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Stalagmite Formation</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white;"><span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Rainfall containing carbonic acid
weathers the rock unit (generally either limestone or dolomite) and seeps into
the cracks, forming caverns and karst systems. The groundwater, percolating
through such cracks and caverns, also contains dissolved calcium bicarbonate.
The dripping action of these groundwater droplets is the driving force behind
the deposition of speleothems in caves.</span></span></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgkHEIiMestQbK3YpoWpW_3_L0glcxCk_9uWBWZurnVKo_d0Puy0K7SO-wSPNBYsEr9XTzA0L7cO1LYyhUdMFJ0aZKst2_BZIMzrrpwIfGwnX4tpMb0uSGlAumaiH8CngjV2vC00OtUHZuG/s1600/Screen+Shot+2017-12-24+at+3.43.28+pm.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="514" data-original-width="399" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgkHEIiMestQbK3YpoWpW_3_L0glcxCk_9uWBWZurnVKo_d0Puy0K7SO-wSPNBYsEr9XTzA0L7cO1LYyhUdMFJ0aZKst2_BZIMzrrpwIfGwnX4tpMb0uSGlAumaiH8CngjV2vC00OtUHZuG/s320/Screen+Shot+2017-12-24+at+3.43.28+pm.png" width="248" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Core drilling of an active stalagmite in Hang Chuot cave.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white;">Speleothems are mainly studied as
paleoclimate indicators, providing clues to past precipitation, temperature and
vegetation changes over the past </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white;">»</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white;">500,000 years.
Radioisotopic dating of speleothems is the primary method used by researchers
to find annual variations in temperature. Carbon isotopes (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white;">d</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white;">^13C) reflect C3/C4 plant compositions and plant productivity, where
increased plant productivity may indicate greater amounts of rainfall and
carbon dioxide absorption. Thus, a larger carbon absorption can be reflective
of a greater atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases. On the other hand,
oxygen isotopes (</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white;">d</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="background: white;">^8O) provide researchers with past rainfall temperatures and quantified
levels of precipitation, both of which are used to determine the nature of past
climates.<br /><br /><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: white;">Stalactite and stalagmite growth
rates also indicate the climatic variations in rainfall over time, with this
variation directly influencing the growth of ring formations on speleothems.
Closed ring formations are indicative of little rainfall or even drought,
where-as wider spaced ring formations indicate periods of heavy rainfall or
flooding. These ring formations thus enable researchers to potentially predict
and model the occurrence of future climatic patterns, based off the atmospheric
signals extrapolated from speleothems. Researchers also use Uranium –Thorium
radioisotopic dating, to determine the age of speleothems in karst formations.
Once the layers have been accurately dated, researchers record the level of
variance in groundwater levels over the lifetime of the karst formation.
Hydrogeologists specialise in such areas of quantitative research. As a result,
speleothems are widely regarded as a crucial geological feature that provide
useful information for researchers studying past climates, vegetation types and
hydrology.</span><br /><br /><br />Want to write guest blog for us? See guidelines <a href="http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/p/contribution-to-lg.html" target="_blank">here</a></span>Muhammad Qasimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09422933048834961238noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8289051954418709326.post-55202234584758306872017-12-23T21:38:00.004+05:002017-12-24T00:30:07.772+05:0010 of the Best Learning Geology Videos of 2017<br />
Following are the best videos of 2017.<br />
Some of the videos are part of our <a href="http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/p/live-virtual-field-tours.html" target="_blank">Live Virtual Field Tours</a> project and Video Lecture Series while some videos were reposted by us.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiyQDT2A7XmcE6ePENU-V2ovAq8LGEYEGIHoAKo4YhvA_SfoCJPNNrCV5cptxK-mR9w7astYlPuXiL2-Q13UmZ3Mu3gzos57f9CarIYVTeK3YU8smuOqm8mPMYfTZHdBz_sn64tG3OfEVli/s1600/ok.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="365" data-original-width="635" height="366" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiyQDT2A7XmcE6ePENU-V2ovAq8LGEYEGIHoAKo4YhvA_SfoCJPNNrCV5cptxK-mR9w7astYlPuXiL2-Q13UmZ3Mu3gzos57f9CarIYVTeK3YU8smuOqm8mPMYfTZHdBz_sn64tG3OfEVli/s640/ok.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br /></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<h3>
<b><u><br /></u></b><b><u>1. Live from Kamokuna Ocean Entry, Big Island of Hawaii</u></b> <br /><br /> <iframe allowfullscreen="true" allowtransparency="true" frameborder="0" height="827" scrolling="no" src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/video.php?href=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2Fgeologylearn%2Fvideos%2F796289813868838%2F&show_text=1&width=267" style="border-style: none; border-width: initial; overflow: hidden;" width="267"></iframe><br />2. <b><u><span style="background-color: white;">Live from Tucson Gem Show, Tucson, Arizona</span></u></b></h3>
<iframe allowfullscreen="true" allowtransparency="true" frameborder="0" height="749" scrolling="no" src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/video.php?href=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2Fgeologylearn%2Fvideos%2F808096246021528%2F&show_text=1&width=267" style="border: none; overflow: hidden;" width="267"></iframe><br />
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<b><u><span style="font-size: small;">3. <span style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;">The landslide of Maierato, Vibo Valentia, Calabria, Italy</span> </span></u></b></h3>
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<iframe allowfullscreen="true" allowtransparency="true" frameborder="0" height="626" scrolling="no" src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/video.php?href=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2Fgeologylearn%2Fvideos%2F809503589214127%2F&show_text=1&width=560" style="border: none; overflow: hidden;" width="560"></iframe><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b><u>4. </u></b><span style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif;"><b><u>A double terminated Quartz being pulled from a pocket in the Alps.</u></b> </span></span></h3>
<iframe allowfullscreen="true" allowtransparency="true" frameborder="0" height="463" scrolling="no" src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/video.php?href=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2Fgeologylearn%2Fvideos%2F811922318972254%2F&show_text=1&width=560" style="border: none; overflow: hidden;" width="560"></iframe><br />
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<h3>
<b><u>5. An incredible footage of a Flash flood</u></b></h3>
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<iframe allowfullscreen="true" allowtransparency="true" frameborder="0" height="569" scrolling="no" src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/video.php?href=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2Fgeologylearn%2Fvideos%2F815570818607404%2F&show_text=1&width=560" style="border: none; overflow: hidden;" width="560"></iframe><br />
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<h3>
<b><u><br /></u></b><b><u>6. Live from Kaibab Limestone, South Rim, Grand Canyon</u></b></h3>
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<br />
<iframe allowfullscreen="true" allowtransparency="true" frameborder="0" height="709" scrolling="no" src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/video.php?href=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2Fgeologylearn%2Fvideos%2F862361457261673%2F&show_text=1&width=267" style="border: none; overflow: hidden;" width="267"></iframe><br />
<h3>
<b><u>7. <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: small;">E<span style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129;">arthquakes and the Richter scale</span> with Fabiana from <a aria-controls="js_1tf" aria-describedby="js_1tg" aria-haspopup="true" class="profileLink" data-hovercard-prefer-more-content-show="1" data-hovercard="/ajax/hovercard/page.php?id=281070405722789&extragetparams=%7B%22fref%22%3A%22mentions%22%7D" href="https://www.facebook.com/geologiadaterra/?fref=mentions" id="js_1ra" style="background-color: white; color: #365899;">Geologia da Terra</a></span></u></b></h3>
<br />
<iframe allowfullscreen="true" allowtransparency="true" frameborder="0" height="526" scrolling="no" src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/video.php?href=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2Fgeologylearn%2Fvideos%2F945139158983902%2F&show_text=1&width=560" style="border: none; overflow: hidden;" width="560"></iframe><br />
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: small;">8. Learn all about Actinolite with Chad keel</span></u></b></h3>
<iframe allowfullscreen="true" allowtransparency="true" frameborder="0" height="444" scrolling="no" src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/video.php?href=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2Fgeologylearn%2Fvideos%2F929791293852022%2F&show_text=1&width=560" style="border-style: none; border-width: initial; overflow: hidden;" width="560"></iframe><br />
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<b><u>9. Soil Erosion </u></b></h3>
<iframe allowfullscreen="true" allowtransparency="true" frameborder="0" height="606" scrolling="no" src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/video.php?href=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2Fgeologylearn%2Fvideos%2F822667027897783%2F&show_text=1&width=476" style="border: none; overflow: hidden;" width="476"></iframe><br />
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<b><u><br /></u></b><b><u>10. Live from Mount Hood with Andrew Dunning of <a href="https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCq--FLzG6qxx9VHAsabZm4A" target="_blank">BetterGeology</a></u></b></h3>
<iframe allowfullscreen="true" allowtransparency="true" frameborder="0" height="407" scrolling="no" src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/video.php?href=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2Fgeologylearn%2Fvideos%2F956821424482342%2F&show_text=1&width=560" style="border: none; overflow: hidden;" width="560"></iframe><br />
<br />
Huge thanks to all who contribute videos to us and thanks to everyone for watching! :)<br />
<br />
Want to contribute? Read guidelines <a href="http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/p/contribution-to-lg.html" target="_blank">here</a>.<br />
<br />Muhammad Qasimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09422933048834961238noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8289051954418709326.post-23821217804077409612017-12-17T00:00:00.000+05:002017-12-30T23:30:37.741+05:00Basics of Basin Analysis <div class="WordSection1">
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -.1pt; mso-line-height-alt: 0pt; text-align: center;">
<u><br /><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><b><o:p></o:p></b></span></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 2.55pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly;">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 97%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 18.15pt; margin-right: 3.0pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 18.15pt; text-indent: -18.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 97%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 97%;">A sedimentary basin is an area in
which sediments have accumulated during a particular time period at a
significantly greater rate and to a significantly greater thickness than
surrounding areas.</span><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 97%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 99%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 18.15pt; margin-right: 41.0pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 18.15pt; text-indent: -18.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 99%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 99%;">A low area on the Earth’s surface
relative to surroundings e.g. deep ocean basin (5-10 km deep), intramontane
basin (2-3 km a.s.l.)</span><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 99%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Basins may be small (kms2) or large (106+ km2)</span><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Basins may be simple or composite (sub-basins)</span><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 99%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 99%;">Basins may change in size &
shape due to:</span><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 99%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 98%;">1.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 98%;">erosion<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">2.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">sedimentation<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">3.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">tectonic
activity<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-alt: 0pt; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: 36.15pt; text-indent: -18.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">4.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">eustatic
sea-level changes<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Basins may overlap each other in time</span><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 99%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 99%;">Controls on Basin Formation</span><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 99%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 98%;">1.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 98%;">Accommodation Space,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72.15pt; mso-line-height-alt: 0pt; mso-list: l0 level3 lfo1; tab-stops: 72.15pt; text-indent: -18.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">a.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Space
available for the accumulation of sediment<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 72.15pt; margin-right: 321.0pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-line-height-alt: 0pt; mso-list: l0 level3 lfo1; tab-stops: 72.15pt; text-indent: -18.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">b.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">T + E = S
+ W T=tectonic subsidence E= Eustatic sea level rise S=Rate of sedimentation
W=increase in water depth<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">2.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Source of
Sediment<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">a.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Topographic
Controls<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">b.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Climate/Vegetation
Controls<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">c.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Oceanographic
Controls (Chemical/Biochemical Conditions)<br /><br /><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.15pt; mso-line-height-alt: 0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 18.15pt; text-indent: -18.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The evolution of sedimentary basins may include:</span><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 98%;">1.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 98%;">tectonic activity (initiation,
termination)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-alt: 0pt; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: 36.15pt; text-indent: -18.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">2.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">magmatic
activity<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-alt: 0pt; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: 36.15pt; text-indent: -18.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">3.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">metamorphism<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">4.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">as well
as sedimentation<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Axial elements of sedimentary basins:</span><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 98%;">1.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 98%;">Basin axis </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 98%;">is the lowest point on the
basement surface<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-alt: 0pt; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: 36.15pt; text-indent: -18.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">2.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Topographic axis </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">is the
lowest point on the depositional surface<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">3.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Depocentre </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">is the point of thickest sediment
accumulation<br /><br /><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 18.15pt; margin-right: 9.0pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-line-height-alt: 0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 18.15pt; text-indent: -18.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The <b>driving mechanisms</b> of subsidence are ultimately
related to processes within the relatively rigid, cooled thermal boundary layer
of the Earth known as the <i>lithosphere.</i>
The lithosphere is composed of a number of tectonic plates that are in relative
motion with one another. The relative motion produces deformation concentrated
along plate boundaries which are of three basic types:</span><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-alt: 0pt; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: 36.15pt; text-indent: -18.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">1.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><b>Divergent boundaries</b> </span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">form
where new oceanic lithosphere is formed and plates diverge. These occur<i> </i>at the mid-ocean ridges.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">2.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><b>Convergent boundaries</b> </span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">form
where plates converge. One plate is usually subducted beneath the<i> </i>other at a convergent plate boundary.
Convergent boundaries may be of different types, depending on the types of
lithosphere involved. This result in a wide diversity of basin types formed at
convergent boundaries.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">3.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> <b> </b></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><b>Transform boundaries</b> </span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">form
where plates move laterally past one another. These can be complex and<i> </i>are associated with a variety of basin
types.<br /><br /><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 99%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 99%;">Many basins form at <i>continental margins.</i></span><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 99%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Using the
plate tectonics paradigm, sedimentary basins have been classified principally in
terms of the type of lithospheric substratum (continental, oceanic,
transitional), the position with respect to a plate boundary (interplate,
intraplate) and the type of plate margin (divergent, convergent, transform)
closest to the basin.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
</div>
<div class="WordSection3">
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="page40"></a><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Plate Tectonic Setting for Basin Formation</span><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 98%;">1.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 98%;">Size and Shape of basin deposits,
including the nature of the floor and flanks of the basin<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.15pt; mso-line-height-alt: 0pt; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo2; tab-stops: 36.15pt; text-indent: -18.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">2.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Type of
Sedimentary infill<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Rate of Subsidence/Infill</span><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 99%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 99%;">Depositional Systems</span><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 99%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 99%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 99%;">Provenance</span><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 99%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63.15pt; mso-line-height-alt: 0pt; mso-list: l1 level3 lfo2; tab-stops: 63.15pt; text-indent: -18.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Texture/Mineralogy maturity of strata</span><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 98%;">3.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 98%;">Contemporaneous Structure and
Syndepositional deformation<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">4.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Heat
Flow, Subsidence History and Diagenesis<br /><br /><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Interrelationship Between Tectonics - Paleoclimates
- and Eustacy</span><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 98%;">1.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 98%;">Anorogenic Areas------><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Climate and Eustacy Dominate</span><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 98%;">2.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 98%;">Orogenic Areas---------><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Sedimentation
responds to Tectonism</span><b style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 14pt;">Plate Tectonics and Sedimentary Basin</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><b> Types</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">SB =
Suture Belt<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">RMP =
Rifted margin prism<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">S C =
Subduction complex<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">FTB =
Fold and thrust belt<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">RA =
Remnant arc</span><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />Wilson Cycle</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">about opening and closing of ocean basins and creation of continental crust.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Structural Controls on Sedimentary Systems in Ba</span></u></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">sins Forming:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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width:.95pt;height:.95pt;z-index:251711964' o:userdrawn="t" fillcolor="black"
strokecolor="none"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 2px; margin-left: -8px; margin-top: 1px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 1px; z-index: 251711964;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1026" width="1" /></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Stage 1: Capacity < Sediment<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Fluvial sedimentation<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stage 2: Capacity = Sediment<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="position: relative; z-index: 251714012;"><span style="height: 2px; left: -8px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 1px;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1028" width="1" /></span></span><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251715036;"><span style="height: 2px; left: -8px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 356px;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1029" width="356" /></span></span><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251716060;"><span style="height: 2px; left: 347px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 1px;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1030" width="1" /></span></span><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251717084;"><span style="height: 2px; left: 702px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 2px;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image005.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1031" width="2" /></span></span><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251718108;"><span style="height: 97px; left: -8px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 2px;"><img height="97" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1032" width="2" /></span></span><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251719132;"><span style="height: 97px; left: 347px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 2px;"><img height="97" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image007.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1033" width="2" /></span></span><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251720156;"><span style="height: 97px; left: 702px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 2px;"><img height="97" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1034" width="2" /></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Fluvial lacustrine Transition<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stage 3: Capacity > Sediment<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="position: relative; z-index: 251721180;"><span style="height: 2px; left: -8px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 1px;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1035" width="1" /></span></span><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251722204;"><span style="height: 2px; left: -8px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 356px;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1036" width="356" /></span></span><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251723228;"><span style="height: 2px; left: 347px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 1px;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1037" width="1" /></span></span><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251724252;"><span style="height: 2px; left: 702px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 2px;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image005.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1038" width="2" /></span></span><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251725276;"><span style="height: 110px; left: -8px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 2px;"><img height="110" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image009.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1039" width="2" /></span></span><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251726300;"><span style="height: 110px; left: 347px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 2px;"><img height="110" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image010.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1040" width="2" /></span></span><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251727324;"><span style="height: 110px; left: 702px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 2px;"><img height="110" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image011.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1041" width="2" /></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Water Volume > excess capacity<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Shallow-water lacustrine sedimentation<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stage 4: Capacity >> Sediment<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="position: relative; z-index: 251728348;"><span style="height: 2px; left: -8px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 1px;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1042" width="1" /></span></span><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251729372;"><span style="height: 2px; left: -8px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 356px;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1043" width="356" /></span></span><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251730396;"><span style="height: 2px; left: 347px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 1px;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1044" width="1" /></span></span><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251731420;"><span style="height: 2px; left: 702px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 2px;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image005.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1045" width="2" /></span></span><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251732444;"><span style="height: 133px; left: -8px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 2px;"><img height="133" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image012.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1046" width="2" /></span></span><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251733468;"><span style="height: 133px; left: 347px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 2px;"><img height="133" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image013.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1047" width="2" /></span></span><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251734492;"><span style="height: 133px; left: 702px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 2px;"><img height="133" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image013.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1048" width="2" /></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Water volume = excess capacity<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Deep-water lacustrine sedimentation<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stage 5: Capacity > Sediment<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="position: relative; z-index: 251735516;"><span style="height: 2px; left: -8px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 1px;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1049" width="1" /></span></span><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251736540;"><span style="height: 2px; left: -8px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 356px;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1050" width="356" /></span></span><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251737564;"><span style="height: 2px; left: 347px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 1px;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1051" width="1" /></span></span><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251738588;"><span style="height: 2px; left: 702px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 2px;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image005.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1052" width="2" /></span></span><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251739612;"><span style="height: 97px; left: -8px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 2px;"><img height="97" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1053" width="2" /></span></span><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251740636;"><span style="height: 97px; left: 347px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 2px;"><img height="97" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image007.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1054" width="2" /></span></span><span style="position: relative; z-index: 251741660;"><span style="height: 97px; left: 702px; position: absolute; top: -18px; width: 2px;"><img height="97" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1055" width="2" /></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Water volume < excess capacity<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Shallow-water lacustrine sedimentation </span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Contributed by:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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Muhammad Qasimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09422933048834961238noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8289051954418709326.post-55085457615122261962017-11-05T02:27:00.000+05:002017-11-05T03:17:42.638+05:00Glossary of Selected Geologic Terms<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br /><table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="width: 1017px;"><tbody>
<tr><td width="1005"><strong>a'a</strong>—a lava rock with a ropey, frothy surface texture formed as a cooling crust on a fluid lava flow.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>ablation</strong>—the removal of snow and ice by melting or evaporation, typically from a glacier or ice field.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>abrasion</strong>—the process of wearing down or rubbing away by means of friction, typically by wind-blown dust or sand.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>absolute dating</strong>—general term applied to a range of techniques that provide estimates of the age of objects, materials, or sites in real calendar years either directly or through a process of calibration with material of known age. Absolute dating methods include the study of the decay radioactive isotopes (such as C14, and uranium to lead, and potassium to argon)</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>abyssal plain</strong>—an underwater plain on the deep ocean floor, usually found at depths between 3000 and 6000 meters.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>accretion</strong>—a process by which material is added to a tectonic plate or a landmass. This material may be sediment, volcanic arcs, seamounts or other igneous features, or blocks or pieces of continental crust split from other continental plates.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>active continental margin</strong>—a continental margin that is characterized by mountain-building activity including earthquakes, volcanic activity, and tectonic motion resulting from movement of tectonic plates.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>alluvial fan</strong>— An outspread, gently sloping mass of sediment deposited by a stream where it issues out of the mouth of a narrow canyon draining from and upland area. Viewed from above, an alluvial fan typically has the shape of an open fan with the apex being at the mouth of the canyon. Alluvial fans are common in arid to semi-arid regions, but can be covered with forests in the California Coast Ranges. Alluvial fans may merge together to form an apron-like slope along the base of a mountain front.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>alluvium</strong>— A general term for unconsolidated sediments deposited by flowing water on stream channel beds, flood plains, and alluvial fans. The term applies to stream deposits of recent times and it does not include subaqueous deposits, such as in lakes or undersea.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>amphibole</strong>—Any of a class of rock-forming silicate or aluminosilicate minerals typically occurring as fibrous or columnar crystals consisting of hydrated double silicate minerals, such as <strong>hornblende</strong>, containing various combinations of sodium, calcium, magnesium, iron, and aluminum.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>amphibolite</strong>—a dark rock with fibrous crystals of amphibole and related minerals (tremolite, actinolite, and hornblende), both intrusive igneous or metamorphic in origin.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>anaglyphic image</strong>—A type of photographic image or drawing that can create a three-dimensional view when viewed through colored filter glasses—red-and-cyan colored lenses are most common (standard). Anaglyphic images are created using two standard photographs taken in parallel position a short distance apart, then colors are subtracted from the two images (blue and green from the left image, and red from the right image) before the two images are merged into a reconstructed image (called an anaglyph). The red colored lens filters out green and blue from the anaglyphic image whereas the cyan colored lens filters out the red. With red-and-cyan 3D viewing glasses on, the brain reconstructs a 3D view from the original stereo pair of images used to make the anaglyphic image. Standard anaglyphic 3D glasses are worn with the red lens over the left eye.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>andesite</strong>—A fine-grained, brown or grayish volcanic rock that is intermediate in composition between rhyolite and basalt, dominantly composed of plagioclase feldspar.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>anthracite</strong>—a hard, metamorphic variety of coal, having a low volitile content. Typically burns very hot and clean relative to other varieties of coal.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>anticline</strong>—a fold in layers of rock where the concave side faces down, with strata sloping downward on both sides from a common crest.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>aphanitic texture</strong>—dense, homogeneous rock with constituents so fine grained that they cannot be seen by the naked eye.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>aquiclude</strong>—an impermeable body of rock or stratum of sediment, or an impermeable fault zone, that acts as a barrier to the flow of groundwater.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>aquifer</strong>—a porous and permeable rock or sediment layer, such as a sand or sandstone, containing groundwater that can be used to supply wells.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>aquitard</strong>—a zone or layer of low permeability adjacent to an aquifer; the permeability is so low it cannot transmit any useful amount of water. Aquitards act as confining layers to confined aquifers. Confined aquifers can be used as water storage.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>arete</strong>—a narrow, jagged mountain ridge that divides two cirques or glaciated valleys.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>argillite</strong>—a metamorphic rock, intermediate between shale and slate, that does not possess true slaty cleavage.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>arroyo</strong>—a watercourse (water-carved gully, channel) in an arid region. Arroyos are typically dry (ephemeral) but are prone to flash floods after rare seasonal thunderstorms.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>artesian well</strong>—a well drilled through impermeable strata to reach water in a confined aquifer capable of rising to the surface by internal hydrostatic pressure.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>ash fall</strong>—A cloud of volcanic tephra, mostly dust (silt-sized) grains, that blankets a region from a volcanic eruption.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>asteroid</strong>—any of the thousands of small irregularly shaped bodies of stone, metal, and ice that revolve about the sun. In our solar system, asteroids typically range in size from about one-mile (1.6 km) to about 480 miles (775 km) in diameter and mostly lie in in orbits between those of Mars and Jupiter, however many large objects have been observed passing through Earth's orbital path. Asteroid collisions with earth were frequent in Earth's early history, but are now extremely rare events. The extinction of the dinosaurs and many other species is mostly blamed on the environmental catastrophe created by an asteroid impact about 65 million years ago, defining the end of the Cretaceous Period (and Mesozoic Era).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>asthenosphere</strong>—a semifluid layer of the earth, between about 40 to 80 miles (100-200 km) below the outer rigid lithosphere (oceanic and continental crust) forming part of the mantle and thought to be able to flow vertically and horizontally, enabling sections of lithosphere to subside, rise, and undergo lateral movement associated with plate tectonics.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>atmosphere</strong>—The gaseous mass or envelope surrounding a celestial body (including the one surrounding the Earth), and retained by the celestial body's gravitational field. The Earth's atmosphere is subdivided into levels: the <em>troposphere</em> is the lowest portion (up to about 6-8 miles) where all weather takes place and contains about 80% of the air's mass and 99% of water vapor. The overlying stratosphere contains an abundance of ozone which absorbs ultraviolet radiation, protecting life on land and in the shallow ocean extends up to about 31 miles. The upper atmosphere extends upward to the transition into space above about 60 miles where the charged atomic particles of the solar wind begins to interact with atmospheric gases.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>atoll</strong>—A ring-shaped reef, island, or chain of islands formed of coral, typical on a foundation of an extinct volcano in the ocean.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>atomic structure</strong>—the arrangement of the parts of an atom, which consists of a massive, positively charged nucleus (composed of protons and neutrons) surrounded by a cloud of electrons arranged in structured orbital arrangements.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>aureole</strong>—a zone of altered rock around an igneous intrusion. Heat and escaping fluids from the intrusion metamorphose the surrounding rock and may be a location where unusual and/or valuable mineral deposits accumulate.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>avalanche</strong>—a mass of snow, ice, rocks, and debris falling rapidly down a mountainside.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>badlands</strong>—uncultivatible land with typically rugged relief, a heavily eroded appearance, and bares little or no vegetation.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>bajada</strong>—an alluvial plain along the base of a mountain front formed from the accumulation and coellescing of of alluvial fans.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>barrier island</strong>—a long and typically narrow island, running parallel to the mainland, composed of sandy sediments, built up by the action of waves and currents. Barrier islands serve to protect the mainland coast from erosion by surf and tidal surges.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>basalt</strong>— A dark-colored igneous rock, commonly extrusive (from volcanic eruptions) and composed primarily of the minerals of calcic plagioclase and pyroxene, and sometimes olivine. Basalt is the fine-grained equivalent of gabbro.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>base level</strong>—the lowest level to which a land surface can be reduced by the action of running water, typically equivalent to the lowest point a river or stream can reach entering the ocean or other large body of water. Base level of a stream entering the ocean will rise and fall with changes in sea level.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>batholith</strong>—a great mass of igneous rock, extending to great depths, formed from extensive magmatic intrusions over a long period of time and throughout a region, typically associated with volcanic arcs.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>bedrock</strong>—relatively "fresh" unaltered solid (consolidated) rock below the surface sediment cover or exposed in rocky outcrops.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>beheaded stream</strong>—Streams draining across an active strike-slip fault trace may be captured by an adjacent stream. With loss of its water supply or a source of sediments, the older channel will remain as a beheaded stream channel as fault motion continues.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>bioaccumulation</strong>—the buildup of organic remains, such as coral reefs, peat, algae, plankton, and shell or bone beds.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>biosphere</strong>—the regions of the surface and atmosphere of the Earth (or possibly other planets) occupied by living organisms.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>biotite</strong>—a common rock-forming mineral occurring in black, dark-brown, or dark -green sheets and flakes: an important constituent of igneous and metamorphic rocks; a mafic variety of mica.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>bioturbation</strong>—the stirring or mixing of sediment or soil by organisms, especially by burrowing, boring, crawling, feeding or other traces left by biological activity.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>bituminous coal</strong>—soft black coal with a high volatile content, and typically burns with a smoky yellow flame.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>black smoker</strong>—a geothermal vent on the seabed that ejects superheated water containing much suspended matter, typically black sulfide minerals that accumulate around the vent on the seafloor.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>bollide</strong>—a large meteor (or asteroid or comet) that explodes in the atmosphere.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>Bowen’s reaction series</strong>—observed order of formation of silicate minerals as they form in a cooling melt (magma) resulting in the orderly formation of high temperature to low temperature minerals (rocks)—felsic minerals (and rocks) melt at lower temperatures that mafic minerals (and rocks). This was demonstrated by the work of "19th century petrologist" Norman Bowen, who showed that as a silicate-rich melt cools, minerals that form at higher temperatures will crystallize first. As these minerals crystallize, the chemistry of the remaining melt will change as it cools, allowing different minerals to form as the melt proceeds cooling. High-temperature minerals like olivine and Ca-rich feldspar cool first, minerals like quartz, K-rich feldspar, and biotite crystallize last. Fluids, such as gases and water, are concentrated in the remnants of a melt.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>breccia</strong>—a rock consisting of angular rock fragments cemented together.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>calcite</strong>—a common rock-forming mineral consisting of calcium carbonate—CaCO<sub>3</sub>. Calcite can be white, colorless (transparent), or slightly colored, commonly yellow, by other inclusion of traces of other elements. Calcite is a major constituent of sedimentary rocks such as limestone, chalk, and travertine, and in the metamorphic rock form, marble.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>caldera</strong>—a large volcanic crater, typically one formed by a major eruption (explosion) or the inward collapse of a volcanic cone following an eruption.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>caliche</strong>—a hardened zone in soils and surficial deposits found in semiarid regions where of calcium carbonate and possibly other carbonates, clay minerals, or crystalline salts such as sodium chloride or sodium nitrate impregnated the pore spaces in the sediment or soil.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>calving</strong>—blocks of ice falling off the face of a parent glacier, ice shelf, or iceberg.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>capillary fringe</strong>— a subsurface layer above the water table in which groundwater seeps up from a water table by capillary action to fill pores.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>catastrophism</strong>—The doctrine that major changes in the earth's crust result from catastrophes rather than evolutionary processes.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>cavern</strong>—an underground passage formed by dissolution of rock (typically limestone) by flowing groundwater. "Cave" is often used as a substitute for the more correct term "cavern."</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>cementation</strong>—processes that harden sediments through the precipitation of minerals in pore spaces between grains of rock and mineral fragments, binding them together.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>Cenozoic</strong>—The era of time spanning about 65 million years ago to the present. The term applies to rocks that formed or accumulated in that time period. The Cenozoic Era is subdivided into the Tertiary and Quaternary periods.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>chemical weathering</strong>—the breakdown (decomposition or decay) of rock by chemical mechanisms, the most important means being carbonation, hydration, hydrolysis, oxidation, and ion exchange in solution.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>chert</strong>— a hard, dense sedimentary rock, consisting chiefly of interlocking microscopic crystals of quartz and may contain opal. It has a conchoidal fracture and may occur in a variety of colors.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>chlorite</strong>—a dark green mineral consisting of a basic hydrated aluminosilicate of magnesium and iron, often formed by metamorphic alteration (low grade or retrograde greenschist metamorphic facies).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>cirque</strong>—a bowl-shaped, steep sided hollow at the head of a valley or on a mountainside, formed by glacial erosion.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>clastic</strong>—sediments or sedimentary rocks composed of fragments derived from older rocks; examples sandstone, conglomerate.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>clay minerals</strong>—Any of various hydrated aluminum silicates that have a fine crystalline structure and are components of clay (sediment).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>cleavage</strong>—the tendency of a crystallized substance to split along definite crystalline planes, yielding smooth surfaces.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>Coast Range Ophiolite</strong>—California geologic formation name; an assemblage of mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks associated with oceanic crust. In California, the “Coast Range Ophiolite” is of Jurassic to possibly Cretaceous age and whose origin is associated with the upper mantle and the lower oceanic crust of the ancient Farallon Plate. The Farallon Plate predates the development of the San Andreas Fault system, and rocks of the Farallon Plate were either subducted or partially accreted (merged) into the crust that now makes up the Coast Ranges. The Coast Range Ophiolite is associated with serpentinite terranes throughout much of coastal central and northern California. The modern Juan de Fuca Plate offshore of the Cascades volcanic range in Oregon and Washington is a remnant of what was once the greater Farallon Plate.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>col</strong> —a saddle in a glacially carved mountain ridge (a gap in an arete).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>colluvium</strong>—A general term applied to loose and incoherent surficial deposits, usually at the base of a slope and brought their chiefly by gravity.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>compaction</strong>—the process of gravitation consolidation of sediments, decreasing porosity and increasing hardness.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>condensation</strong>—the conversion of atmospheric water vapor into liquid water or ice (causing precipition).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>conglomerate</strong>—A coarse-grained sedimentary rock composed of rounded to sub-angular fragments (larger than 2 mm in diameter) set in a fine-grained matrix of sand or silt, and commonly cemented by calcium carbonate, iron oxide, silica, or hardened clay; the consolidated equivalent to gravel.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>continental crust</strong>—the relatively thick part of the earth's crust that forms the large landmasses. It is generally older and more complex than the oceanic crust, and dominantly composed of igneous and metamorphic of granitic or more felsic composition.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>continental drift—</strong>theory that continents were once assembled (noted from early maps by Abraham Ortelius in 1596). Promoted as a plausible theory by Alfred Wegener, 1912), but criticized for lack of mechanism. Plate Tectonic Theory evolved in the 1960 after global observation data first was assembled.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>continental rise</strong>—a wide, gentle incline from a deep ocean plain (abyssal plain) to a continental slope. A continental rise consists mainly of silts, muds, and sand, deposited by turbidity flows, and can extend for several hundreds of miles away from continental margins. Although it usually has a smooth surface, it is sometimes crosscut by submarine canyons extending seaward of continental slope regions.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>continental shelf</strong>—a submerged nearshore border of a continent that slopes gradually and extends to a point of steeper descent to the ocean bottom. During the peak of the last ice age, the world's continental shelves were mostly exposed coastal plain environments.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>continental shield</strong>—a large regions of igneous and high-grade metamorphic rock of Precambrian-age exposed in the tectonically stable core of continents; an example is the Canadian Shield in east central Canada and the Lake Superior region of the United States.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>continental slope</strong>—the slope between the outer edge of the continental shelf and the deep ocean floor. The continental slope is cut by submarine canyons in many locations.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>convergent boundary</strong>—when continents collide... mountains belts form - examples include the Himalayas, Alps, and ancient Appalachian Mountains when the ancient continent of Pangaea formed. When continents collide with ocean crust... subduction zones with deep ocean trenches and volcanic arcs form - examples include the Andes Mountains, Aleutian Islands, Japan, Philippines, Indonesia, the ancient Sierra Nevada and modern Cascades Range.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>coquina</strong>—a soft type of limestone composed almost entirely of compacted and cemented shell fragments, commonly found on upper beach ares in warm, humid climates.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>core</strong>—based on geophysical studies, the innermost part of the earth is believed to consist of a 758 mile thick magnetic metallic core overlain by a 1400 mile thick zone of molten material. This is overlain by the Earth's mantle.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>crater</strong>—a large bowl-shaped vent or collapsed top of a volcano created by explosive eruptions. Also a large bowl-shaped hole created by an meteor or asteroid impact and explosion.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>craton</strong>—the part of a continent that is stable and forms the central mass of the continent. The craton region of North America includes the region between the Rocky Mountains (to the west) and the Appalachian Mountains (to the east) and including the Canadian Shield.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>creep</strong>—in earthquake terminology, creep is the slow, more or less continuous movement occurring on faults due to ongoing tectonic deformation. In landslide terminology, creep is slow, more or less continuous downslope movement of surface materials (mineral, rock, and soil particles) under gravitational stresses.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>Cretaceous</strong>—the final period of the Mesozoic Era (after the Jurassic Period and before the Tertiary Period of the Cenozoic Era). The Cretaceous Period began about 144 million years ago and ended about 65 million years ago.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>crust</strong>— the outermost solid shell of a rocky planet or moon, which is chemically distinct from the underlying mantle.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>crystallization</strong>—the formation and growth of mineral crystals from the cooling of molten material.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>dacite</strong>—an extrusive igneous (volcanic) rock with an aphanitic to porphyritic texture and is intermediate in composition between andesite and rhyolite.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>Darcy's Law</strong>—the law that the rate at which a fluid flows through a permeable substance per unit area is equal to the permeability, which is a property only of the substance through which the fluid is flowing, times the pressure drop per unit length of flow, divided by the viscosity of the fluid.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>debris flood</strong>— typically disastrous flood, intermediate between the turbid flood of a mountain stream and a debris flow, ranging in sediment load between 40 to 70 percent (the rest is water and trapped gasses).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>debris flow</strong>— A moving mass of rock fragments, soil, and mud in which more than half of the particles being larger than sand size (otherwise it would be a mudflow) and with 70 to 90 percent of the material consisting of sediment (the rest is water and trapped gasses). Slow debris flows may only move a few feet per year, whereas rapid ones can reach speeds greater than 100 miles per hour. Debris flows can display either turbulent or laminar flow characteristics.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>deep-sea fan</strong>—fan- or delta-shaped sedimentary deposit found along the base of the continental slopes, commonly at the mouth of submarine canyons. Deep sea fans form from sediments carried by turbidity flow (density currents) that pour into the deep ocean basin from the continental shelf and slope regions and then gradually settle to form graded beds of sediment on the sea floor. Deep-sea fans can extend for many tens to hundreds of miles away from the base of the continental slope and an coalesce into a broad, gently sloping region called a continental rise.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>deflation</strong>—the removal of particles of rock, sand, soil or dust, by the wind, often leaving a rocky crust (a desert pavement) on a desert landscape.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>deflected drainage</strong>—A stream that displays offset by relatively recent movement along a strike-slip fault. Fault motion and characteristics of the bedrock adjacent to and within a fault zone can influence erosion patterns and diversion of stream drainages over time. Commonly also called a "dogleg" stream drainage.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>degassing</strong>—the process of separation of volatile gases (CO2, CH4, SO2, etc.) and steam from molten material (magma or lava).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>delta</strong>—a wedge or apron-shaped deposit of sediments at the mouth of a river where it enters a large body of water (ocean or lake).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>deposition</strong>—the process of sediments settling and accumulating from a moving fluid (wind, water, or ice).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>desert pavement</strong>—a gravel layer that forms on the surface of many desert landscapes where the wind has removed finer materials (sand, silt, dust).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>desert varnish</strong>—a dark, hard film of oxides formed on exposed rock surfaces in arid regions.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>detrital sedimentary rocks</strong>—rocks are formed from solid particles of pre-existing rocks or organic debris<strong>.</strong></td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>diabase</strong>—a fine granular intrusive igneous or volcanic rock of mafic composition, intermediate in texture between basalt and gabbro, found in volcanic dikes and sills.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>diagenesis</strong>—the physical and chemical changes occurring during the conversion of sediment to sedimentary rock.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>dike</strong>—a vertical or near vertical wall of igneous rock formed where magma squeezed into a fault zone before crystallizing. Dike form in volcanic regions, and often appear as dark castle wall-like features on landscapes where the host rock surrounding the intrusion have eroded away.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>diorite</strong>—a crystalline intrusive igneous rock intermediate in composition between granite and gabbro, consisting essentially of plagioclase and hornblende or other mafic minerals; having a "salt and pepper"-like appearance.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>dip-slip faults</strong>—Inclined fractures where the blocks have mostly shifted vertically. If the rock mass above an inclined fault moves down, the fault is termed normal, whereas if the rock above the fault moves up, the fault is termed reverse. A reverse fault in which the fault plane is inclined at an angle equal to or less than 45° is called a thrust fault.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>dip</strong>—The angle that a rock layer or any planar feature makes with the horizontal, measured perpendicular to the strike and in a vertical plane.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>disconformity</strong>—a break in a sedimentary sequence where rocks (strata) below and above are parallel but are of different geologic ages.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>dissolution</strong>—the action or process of dissolving or being dissolved, such as salt (NaCl) or calcite (CaCO<sub>3</sub>) dissolving into groundwater.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>divergent boundary</strong>—when plates diverge, spreading centers form creating new oceanic crust. Examples include mid-ocean ridges in world's ocean basins. Speading centers occur where continents are pulling apart. Examples include the Africa rift zones, Red Sea basin, Iceland, and North America's Great Basin region including the Gulf of California.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>dolomite</strong>—A white or light-colored mineral, essentially CaMg(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>, commonly found in association with limestone or marble. Dolomite is a common replacement mineral in limestone that has been exposed the high magnesium content brine fluids.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>dolostone</strong>—A rock composed mostly of the mineral dolomite, typically a white, light gray or pink with a sugary crystalline texture.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>drainage basin</strong>—a region drained by a principle stream extending from upland headwater regions down to where the stream merges with another body of water (a larger stream or river, lake, or ocean). A divide is a line that marks the boundary between two drainage basins.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>drainage pattern</strong>—a pattern created by stream erosion over time that reveals characteristics of the kind of rocks and geologic structures in a landscape region drained by streams.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>drumlin</strong>—a low oval-shaped mound or small hill, typically one of a group, consisting of compacted glacial till shaped by flowing ice in a region that experienced glaciation.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>dune</strong>—an acculuation of wind-blown sand and/or silt found in association with deserts or sandy beach settings where there is a constant supply of silt to sand grain-sized sediments.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>earthflow</strong>—a slow moving downslope viscous flow of fine grained materials that have been saturated with water, and moves under the pull of gravity; a slow moving mass of material, slower than a more fluids debris flow, rock fall, or avalanche.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>earthquake fault</strong>—An active fault that has a history of producing earthquakes or is considered to have a potential of producing damaging earthquakes on the basis of observable evidence. Not all faults are active or are considered earthquake faults.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>earthquake</strong>—Ground shaking caused by a sudden movement on a fault or by volcanic disturbance.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>ecologite</strong>—A high-grade metamorphic rock containing granular minerals, typically red garnet mixed with grains of pyroxene, quartz, and feldspars.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>epicenter</strong>—The point on the Earth’s surface above the point at depth in the Earth’s crust where an earthquake begins.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>erosion</strong>—the mechanical processes of wearing or grinding away materials on a landscape by the action of wind, flowing water, or glacial ice.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>erratic</strong>—a rock or boulder that differs from the surrounding bedrock and is believed to have been transported from a distant location by glacial action.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>escarpment</strong>—A long, more or less continuous cliff or relatively steep slope facing in one general direction, separating two level or gently sloping surfaces, and produced by faulting or erosion.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>esker</strong>—a long, typically winding, ridge composed of gravel and other sediment deposited by meltwater from a retreating glacier or ice sheet.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>estuary</strong>—the mouth of a river or stream where the tide-driven flow allows the mixing of freshwater and ocean saltwater.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>evaporation</strong>—the physical conversion of a liquid into a vapor.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>evaporite</strong>—a rock composed of salt minerals left behind by the evaporation of salty water.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>exfoliation—</strong>joints or sheet joints are surface-parallel fracture systems in rock often leading to erosion of concentric slabs.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>extension</strong>—the tectonic stretching of crustal rocks, typically forming parallel basin and range landscapes, such as seen throughout Nevada.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>extinction</strong>—the elimination of all members of a species, or the state or process of a species, family, or larger group being or becoming extinct..</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>extraterrestrial materials</strong>—rock, ice, dust, and gases found beyond earth's atmosphere.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>extrusive igneous rocks</strong>—rapidly cooling magma (or lava), on or near the surface, crystallizes quickly, preventing visible crystals from forming. Igneous rock that forms from the eruption of molten material at the surface. Extrusive rocks include lava flows and pyroclastic material such as volcanic ash.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>facies</strong>—the character of a rock expressed by its formation, composition, and fossil content.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>fact</strong>—Knowledge or information based on real occurrences; something demonstrated to exist or known to have existed.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>fault line</strong>—The trace of a fault plane on the ground surface or other surface, such as on a sea cliff, road cut, or in a mine shaft or tunnel. A fault line is the same as fault trace. Faults lines can often be difficult to resolve from general surface observation due to cover by younger sediments, vegetation, and human-induced landscape modifications.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>fault scarp</strong>—An escarpment or cliff formed by a fault that reaches the Earth’s surface. Most fault scarps have been modified by erosion since the faulting occurred.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>fault system</strong>—A collection of parallel or interconnected faults that display a related pattern of relative offset and activity across an entire region (for example, the San Andreas Fault system).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>fault zone</strong>—A fault or set of related faults that is expressed as a zone of numerous small fractures or of “breccia” or “fault gouge.” A fault zone may be hundreds of feet wide and may locally have a complex structure.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>fault</strong>—A fracture or crack along which two blocks of rock slide past one another. This movement may occur rapidly, in the form of an earthquake, or slowly, in the form of creep. Types of faults include strike-slip fault, normal fault, reverse fault, and thrust fault.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>feldspar</strong>—an abundant group of rock-forming mineral typically occurring as colorless or pale-colored crystals and consisting of aluminosilicates of potassium (<strong>orthoclase</strong>), and sodium and calcium (<strong>plagioclase</strong>).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>felsic</strong>—minerals of silica and aluminum-rich composition, and the rocks that form from them. Felsic materials are typically less dense than mafic materials (minerals and rocks rich in iron and magnesium).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>fissure eruption</strong>—volcanic eruptions along rift fault zones that can flood large area with basalt flows.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>fjord</strong>—a long, narrow, deep inlet of the sea between high cliffs typically formed by submergence of a glaciated U-shaped valley.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>flint</strong>—a hard (typically gray or brown) rock consisting of nearly pure silica (chert), occurring chiefly as nodules in chalk or limestone.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>flood basalt</strong>—the result of a giant volcanic eruption or series of eruptions that coats large stretches of land or the ocean floor with basalt lava. Another older name is trap basalt.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>focus</strong>—the point below the Earth's surface where seismic waves originate during an earthquake.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>foliation</strong>—any penetrative planar fabric present in rocks, especially rocks affected by regional metamorphic compression typical of orogenic belts.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>folding</strong>—bending or warping of stratified rocks by tectonic forces (movements in the Earth's crust).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>foot wall</strong>—The underlying block of a fault having an inclined fault plane.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>fossil</strong>—A remnant or trace of an organism of a some earlier geologic age, such as a skeleton or leaf imprint, embedded and preserved in the earth's crust.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>fossilization</strong>—the processes that turn plant or animal remains to stone.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>Franciscan Formation</strong>— A California geologic formation name; an assemblage of rocks exposed throughout the Coast Ranges of California that consists of a mix of volcanic rocks, chert, shale, graywacke sandstone, limestone, basalt, and other oceanic crustal rocks that have been partially metamorphosed during their migration from place of origin in a deep ocean basin to being accreted by plate tectonic forces onto the west coast of North America. The name Franciscan was first applied to bedrock of Jurassic and Cretaceous age in the San Francisco region, but the name is commonly used throughout much of coastal central and northern California.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>frost wedging</strong>—the shattering, fracturing, and moving rock and soil caused by the expansion of freezing water turning into ice. Frost wedging is a major force in seasonally wet regions where daytime temperatures rise above freezing and sink below freezing at night.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>fumerole</strong>—an opening or vent in or near a volcano, through which hot sulfurous gases, steam, and other gases emerge.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>gabbro</strong>— A group of dark-colored, basic intrusive igneous rocks composed principally of calcic-plagioclase minerals (labrodorite or bytonite) and augite, and with or without olivine and orthopyroxene. It is the approximate intrusive equivalent of basalt.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>galaxy</strong>—a system of millions to billions of stars, together with gas and dust, held together by gravitational attraction. Earth is in the Milky Way galaxy.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>garnet</strong>—any of several common, widespread crystalline aluminum or calcium silicate minerals, often embedded in igneous and metamorphic rocks, and colored red, brown, black, green, yellow, or white and used both as gemstones and as abrasives. Garnet is an indicator mineral of high-grade metamorphic rocks (such as eclogite facies).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>geologic time scale</strong>—Geologists have subdivided periods in Earth's history is measured periods spanning millions of years (Ma). Segments of time periods have been named to help define the chronology of events (such as mountain range formation), the formation of rock units (such as the age of a lava flow), the age of fossils, organizing geologic map units, and other purposes. Below is a standard geologic time scale listing names of major time periods with time span information.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>geology</strong> —The study of the Earth.The scientific study of the origin, history, and structure of the earth. The structure of a specific region of the earth's crust. And, the scientific study of the origin, history, and structure of the solid matter of a celestial body.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>geomorphology</strong> — the study of the earth's surface including classification, description, nature, origin, and development of landforms and their relationships to underlying structures and the history of geologic changes as recorded by these surface features. Examples of geomorphic features associated with faults are illustrated below.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>geyser</strong>—a hot spring in which water intermittently boils and erupts, sending a tall column of water and steam into the air.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>glaciation</strong>—a period when the ice or glaciers cover or alter the land's surface, resulting in erosion by flowing ice.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>glacier</strong>—a slowly moving mass or river of ice formed by the accumulation and compaction of snow over many years, forming on mountains or land masses near the Earth's poles.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>gneiss</strong>—a metamorphic rock with a banded or foliated structure, typically coarse-grained (crystalline) and consisting mainly of feldspar, quartz, and mica.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>gneissic texture</strong>—a coarsely foliated texture in which the minerals have been segregated into discontinuous bands, each of which is dominated by one or two minerals, giving the rock a striped appearance.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>graben</strong>—an elongate, structurally depressed crustal area or block of crust that is bounded by faults on its long sides. A graben may be geomorphically expressed as a rift valley or pull-apart basin.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>granite</strong>—a common, coarse-grained (crystalline), light-colored, hard plutonic igneous rock consisting chiefly of quartz, orthoclase or microcline (feldspars), and mica.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>granodiorite</strong>—a coarse-grained (crystalline) plutonic igneous containing quartz and plagioclase, between granite and diorite in composition</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>Great Valley Sequence</strong>— ACalifornia geologic formation name; a thick sequence of late Mesozoic age sedimentary rocks (150 to 65 million years old). These rocks consist mostly shale, sandstone, conglomerate and are exposed throughout parts of California’s Coast Ranges and underlies much of the Great Valley west of the Sierra Nevada Range. The Great Valley Sequence represents sedimentary material deposited in shallow shelf to deep-sea environments along the western continental margin mostly before the development of the modern San Andreas Fault System.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>greenstone</strong>—a metamorphic rock derived from any basic igneous rocks (typically altered basalt) colored green by the minerals chlorite, hornblende, or epidote.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>graywacke</strong>—(greywacke or grauwacke, a German word signifying a grey, earthy rock) is a variety of sandstone or mudrock generally characterized by its dark color and poorly sorted angular grains including a mix of quartz, feldspar, dark mafic minerals, and tiny rock fragments cemented in a compact, clay-fine matrix.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>groundwater</strong>—Water beneath the land's surface, filling pore spaces in saturated soil and rock; water that supplies wells and springs.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>grus</strong>—grainy sand and fine gravel (sediments) derived from the weathing of granitic rocks, typically in arid or semiarid regions.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>guyot</strong>—a submarine mountain (seamount) with a flat top. Most guyots are ancient submarine volcanoes that have been beveled by wave action before sinking into ocean depth and may lack the fringing limestone reefs associated with atolls.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>gypsum</strong>—a mineral composed of hydrous calcium sulfate (CaSO4-2H20); an evaporite mineral used in the manufacture of plaster.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>hanging wall</strong>—the rocks on the upper side of an inclined fault plane.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>head</strong>—the height that groundwater will rise in a confined well under artesian water pressure.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>hematite</strong>—A reddish, steel gray, or black mineral consisting of ferric oxide (Fe2O3).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>historical geology</strong>—A branch of geology concerned with the systematic study of bedded rocks and their relations in time and the study of fossils and their locations in a sequence of bedded rocks.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>Holocene</strong>—The name applied to the time span that corresponds with the post-glacial warming period in which we now live. The Holocene Epoch began about 11,000 years ago (at the end of the Pleistocene Epoch of the Quaternary Period), about the time that human population growth and distribution expanded worldwide.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>horn</strong>—a pointy mountain peak having concave faces carved by glaciation.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>horst</strong>—a raised elongated block of the earth's crust lying between two faults.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>hotspot</strong>—a place in the upper mantle of the Earth at which extremely hot magma from the lower mantle upwells to melt through the crust usually in the interior of a tectonic plate to form a volcanic feature. Examples include the Hawaii or Yellowstone hotspots.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>hotspring</strong>—a spring that is produced by the emergence of geothermally heated groundwater from the Earth's crust, and usually defined as spring water warmer than the human body.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>hydrology</strong>—the science concerned with the properties of the earth's water, especially its movement in relation to the land's surface. The study of groundwater is <em>geohydrology</em>.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>hydrosphere</strong>—All the waters on the Earth's surface, such as oceans, lakes, rivers, and streams.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>hydrothermal veins</strong>—fractures in rock that have been filled with minerals (commonly quartz and/or calcite) precipitated from groundwater or hot fluids of magmatic origin.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>hypothesis</strong>—A tentative explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be tested by further investigation.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>ice age</strong>—a period in Earth's history when the global temperatures cooled enough for glaciers (both alpine and continental glaciers) to form. Note that parts of the world, e.g. Greenland and Antarctica, are still experiencing ice-age-like conditions.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>ice cap</strong>—an extensive dome-shaped or platelike perennial cover of ice and snow that spreads out from a center and covers a large area, especially of land.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>ice sheet</strong>—an ice sheet is the layer of ice covering extensive regions of the world, notably Antarctica and Greenland. The ice sheets form from the accumulation of thousands or millions of years of snowfall. With compaction, the snow turns to glacial ice.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>ice shelf</strong>—An ice shelf is a thick floating platform of ice that forms where a glacier or ice sheet flows down to a coastline and onto the ocean surface.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>igneous</strong>—A rock or mineral that solidified from molten or partly molten material (referring to magma underground or lava on the surface). The word igneous also applies to the processes related to the formation of such rocks. Examples of igneous rocks include granite, gabbro, and basalt.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>igneous rocks</strong>—A rock formed from molten materials, includes intrusive rocks (rocks cooled below the surface) and rocks formed on the Earth's surface by volcanism (and from melting associated with extraterrestial impacts).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>impact crater</strong>—a bowl-shaped depression created by the explosion of a massive meteorite or asteroid body with the surface of a planet.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>inselberg</strong>—an isolated rocky hill or mountain rising above a plain-like landscape in a typically hot, dry region.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>intensity</strong>—A measure of ground shaking describing the local severity of an earthquake in terms of its effects on the Earth’s surface and on humans and their structures. The Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale, which uses Roman numerals, is one way scientists measure intensity.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>intrusion</strong>—liquid (molten) rock that forms under the surface of the earth that typically migrates upward, displacing and/or melting other rock as it moves.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>intrusive igneous rocks</strong>—intrusive igneous rocks form in naturally insulated settings (rock is a poor conductor of heat) so that minerals crystallize slowly, forming large, visible crystals.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>intrusive</strong>—Igneous rocks that forms from the process of emplacement of magma in pre-existing rock. Intrusive igneous rocks typically cool slowly compared to extrusive igneous rocks formed on the Earth’s surface and therefore commonly have a coarse crystalline texture (like granite or gabbro). The word intrusive applies to both the intrusion process and the rock so formed.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>isostacy</strong>—the state of balance, or equilibrium, which sections of the earth's lithosphere (whether continental or oceanic crust) are thought ultimately to achieve when the vertical forces upon them remain unchanged. The lithosphere floats upon the semifluid asthenosphere below. If a section of lithosphere is loaded, as by ice, it will slowly subside to a new equilibrium position; if a section of lithosphere is reduced in mass, as by erosion, it will slowly rise to a new equilibrium position.</td></tr>
<tr><td height="61"><strong>joint—</strong>a fracture in rock where the displacement associated with the opening of the fracture is greater than the displacement due to movement in the plane of the fracture (up, down or sideways) of one side relative to the other. Cracks in rocks that do not show apparant offset are joints.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>Jurassic</strong>—The second period of the Mesozoic Era (after Triassic Period and before Cretaceous Period) and spans the period of time between about 206 and 144 million years ago.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>karst</strong>—A landscape underlain by limestone and is characterized by numerous caves, sinkholes, fissures, and underground streams.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>laccolith</strong>—a mass of igneous rock, typically lens-shaped, that has been intruded between rock strata causing uplift in the shape of a dome.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>lahar</strong>—A landslide or mudflow of volcanic materials on the flanks of a volcano. Also the name of the deposit created by a landslide or mudflow on a volcanic landscape.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>laminae</strong> (lamination)—a layer of sediment or sedimentary rock only a small fraction of an inch (less than a centimeter) in thickness.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>landslide</strong>— A general term covering a wide variety of mass-movement landforms and processes involving the down slope transport of soil and rock under the influence of gravity. Usually the displaced material moves over a relatively confined zone or surface of shear. Landslides have a great range of morphologies, rates, patterns of movement, and scale. Their occurrence reflects bedrock and soil characteristics and material properties affecting resistance to shear. Landslides are usually preceded, accompanied, and followed by perceptible creep along the surface of sliding and (or) within the slide mass. Slumps, debris flows, rockfalls, avalanches, and mudflows are all forms of landslides.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>lava</strong>—molten rock flowing on the land's surface. Underground, molten rock is called magma.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>lava flows</strong>—a deposit of volcanic rock formed from lava flowing and cooling on the land's surface; also applies to the action of flowing lava on the land's surface.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>lava tube</strong>—a natural tunnel within a solidified lava flow, formerly occupied by flowing molten lava.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>leaching</strong>—the process of dissolving and removing the soluble constituents of soil or rock near the land's surface; associated with the chemical weathering of rock and the formation of soil.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>lignite</strong>—an organic deposit of soft brownish coal preserving traces of plant structure, intermediate between peat and bituminous coal.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>lime mud</strong>—sediment composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO<sub>3</sub>) derived from the skeletal remains of shelled organisms, coral, and calcareous algae; the sediment that with compaction and cementation (lithification) become limestone.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>limestone</strong>—a sedimentary rock consisting predominantly of calcium carbonate (CaCO<sub>3</sub>) derived from the skeletal remains of marine marine microorganisms, shells and coral. Limestone is commonly used in the manufacture of lime for cement and used as building stone.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>limonite</strong>—An amorphous orange to brownish mineral consisting of a mixture of hydrated ferric oxides, important as an iron ore. Rust on iron vehicles is essentially limonite.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>linear drainage</strong>— A stream drainage that follows the trace of a fault. Stream alignment may be a result of strike-slip fault motion or the erosion of sheared and pulverized rock along a fault zone.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>linear ridge</strong>— A long hill or crest of land that stretches in a straight line. It may indicate the presence of a fault or a fold (such as an anticline or syncline). If it is found along a strike-slip fault it may be a shutter ridge or a pressure ridge.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>linear scarp</strong>— A straight escarpment where there is a vertical component of offset along a fault (either normal or reverse). Linear scarps may also form when preferential erosion removes softer bedrock or soil along one side of a fault.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>linear trough</strong>— A straight valley that may be bounded by linear fault scarps. A linear trough may be a graben or a rift valley and may be modified by erosion.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>liquefaction</strong>—the conversion of poorly consolidated sediment into a flowing liquid caused by earthquake shaking.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>lithosphere</strong>—the rocky outer portion of the Earth, consist of the crust and upper mantle (about the upper 60 miles below the Earth's surface).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>loess</strong>—A tan, buff to gray windblown deposit of fine-grained, loamy, calcareous silt or clay; fine-grained deposits typically derived from glacial outwash plains or dust derived from arid regions.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>longshore drift</strong>—the process by which sediments (sand and gravel) move along a beach shoreline, caused by currents created by waves appoaching the shore at an oblique angle.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>mafic rocks</strong>—mafic rocks (rich in iron and magnesium) are denser than felsic rocks (rich in silica and aluminum).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>mafic</strong>— A mnemonic term combining and “Ma” (for magnesium) and “Fe” (for ferric iron). The term is used to describe dark-colored igneous minerals rich in iron and magnesium, as well as the rocks that bear those minerals. See also felsic and ultramafic.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>magma</strong>—hot, fluid or semimolten rock material underground (within the earth's crust). Magma that reaches the land's surface is called lava.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>magmatic differentiation</strong>—processes by which chemically different igneous rocks, such as basalt and granite, can form from the same initial magma. High-temperature minerals can crystallize and settle out, causing the molten material to be concentrated with component that may later form rock enriched in low temperature minerals (such as granite). The last rocks to crystallize in a magmatic intrusion will be enriched in low temperature minerals (quartz, mica, and potassium- and sodium feldspars).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>magnetite</strong>—a gray-black magnetic mineral that consists of iron oxide (Fe3O4) and is an important form of iron ore.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>magnitude (M)</strong>—A numeric measure that represents the size or strength of an earthquake, as determined from seismographic observations.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>mantle</strong>—an inner layer of a terrestrial planet or other rocky body large enough to have differentiated in composition by density. On Earth, the mantle is a highly viscous layer between the crust and the outer core.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>marble</strong>—a crystalline metamorphic rock composed primarily of calcium carbonate (CaCO<sub>3</sub>). A product of metamorphism of limestone.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>mass wasting</strong>—a general name for processes by which soil, regolith, and rock move downslope under the force of gravity. Types of mass wasting include creep, landslides, mudflows, debris flows, lahars, topples, rock falls, and avalanches—each with its own geomorphic characteristics, and taking place over timescales ranging from seconds to years.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>meandering</strong>—A meander is a bend in a sinuous watercourse. Meandering is the process when the faster-moving water in a river erodes the outer banks and widens its valley, and the slower-moving water on the inner side of the bend becomes a place where sediments are deposited. As a result, rivers tend to constantly change their course over a floodplain over time.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>mechanical weathering</strong>—All processes that collectively break rocks into smaller pieces. Examples include breaking rocks by water expansion during freezing in cracks, plant root expansion, all forms of mass wasting, and rock particles breaking as they tumble down stream beds during floods or get battered by wave action along a shoreline.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>Mesozoic</strong>—The era of geologic time spanning about 248 to 65 million years ago. The Mesozoic Era follows the Paleozoic Era and precedes the Cenozoic Era. The Mesozoic Era is subdivided into the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous Periods. The term also applies to rocks that formed and accumulated in that time period.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>metachert</strong>—extremely hard, brecciated, and recrystallized chert that still retains its microcrystalline texture.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>metaconglomerate</strong>—conglomerate that has been partially metamorphosed, retaining some of the distinct character of original gravel clasts, although they may be stretched or recrystallized.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>metamorphic</strong>—Pertaining to the process of metamorphism or to its results. Metamorphism is the mineralogical, chemical, and structural adjustment of solid rocks to physical and chemical conditions imposed at depth below the surface and below surficial zones where processes of sedimentation, compaction, and cementation take place. Metamorphism may take place where a rock is subjected to conditions unlie those in which it formed. Examples of metamorphic rocks include slate, marble, quartzite, greenstone, gneiss, and schist.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>metamorphic rocks</strong>—Rock that was once one form of rock but has changed to another under the influence of heat, pressure, or fluids without passing through a liquid phase (melting).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>metasandstone</strong>—sandstone that has undergone partial metamorphism, but retains enough characteristics to show that it was derived from</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>meteor</strong>—a streak of light generated by a particle of rock as it burns up as it passes through the atmosphere.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>meteorite</strong>—a stone of extraterrestrial origin that survives passage through the atmosphere and collision with the earth.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>mid-ocean ridge</strong>—an undersea mountain system that consists of various mountain ranges and volcanoes, typically having a valley known as a rift running along its spine, formed by tectonic plates moving apart; regions along separating plate boundaries where new ocean crust is forming.</td></tr>
<tr><td height="62"><strong>migmatite</strong>—rock intermediate between metamorphic igneous character. Migmatite shows irregular banding and much recrystallization, typical of metamorphic gneisses that have taken on igneous character through partial melting.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>mineral</strong>—Any naturally occurring, homogeneous, inorganic solid substance having a definite chemical composition and characteristic crystalline structure, color, and hardness.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>mineral precipitation</strong>—the process of mineral formation directly from a fluid (a water solution and/or hydrothermal gases) such as calcite from seawater or groundwater.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>mineral</strong>—a naturally occurring, homogeneous inorganic solid substance having a definite chemical composition and characteristic crystalline structure, color, and hardness.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>Miocene</strong>—an epoch of the late Tertiary Period, after the Oligocene Epoch and before the Pliocene Epoch, representing the time span between about 23.8 and 5.3 million years ago.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>moraine</strong>—accumulations of rocks and sediment deposited by a glacier, typically as ridges at its edges or its terminal boundary of flow and zone of wastage.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>mudflow</strong>—a downhill movement of soft wet mud and rock debris, made fluid by rain or melted snow, and capable of moving downslope at great speed (also see <em>debris flow</em>).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>mudstone</strong>—a fine-grained sedimentary rock formed from the compaction and cementation (litification) of muddy sediments.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>muscovite</strong>—a silver-gray form of mica (platy sheet silicate mineral) occurring in many igneous and metamorphic rocks.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>mylonite</strong>—a fine-grained metamorphic rock, typically banded, resulting from the grinding or crushing of other rocks in a fault zone.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>neap tide</strong>—the lowest level of high tide; a tide that occurs when the difference between high and low tide is least. Neap tide comes twice a month, in the first and third quarters of the moon.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>nonconformity</strong>—an unconformity that separates crystalline rocks, either igneous or metamorphic, from younger sedimentary rocks.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>normal fault</strong>—a fault in which the hanging wall appears to have moved downward relative to the foot wall. The dip angle of the slip surface is between 45 and 90 degrees. Many normal faults in mountainous regions form from gravitational pull along mountainsides and may be associated with the headwall escarpment of slumps.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>oasis</strong>—a fertile or green spot in a desert or wasteland, made so by the presence of water.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>oblique-slip faults</strong>—faults that display significant components of both horizontal (strike-slip) and vertical (dip-slip) motion.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>observation</strong>—the act of noting and recording something, such as a phenomenon, with instruments, in order to gain information.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>obsidian</strong>—a dark, glasslike volcanic rock formed by the rapid solidification of lava without crystallization (natural glass).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>ocean crust</strong>—part of Earth's lithosphere that underlies ocean basins. Oceanic crust is primarily composed of mafic rocks (rich in iron and magnesium) and are less dense than rocks that underlie continents (continental crust is enriched in silica and aluminum). Ocean crust around the world is significantly younger (less than 200 million years) relative to continental crust which has typically accumulated through the natural refining processes associated with plate-tectonics over many hundreds of millions to several billion years.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>offset drainage</strong>— A stream that displays offset by relatively recent movement along a strike-slip fault. A better term is deflected drainage.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>oil</strong>—the liquid component of petroleum (as opposed to gas or asphalt or tar). Petroleum is the derivative of the metamorphism of organic-rich sedimentary rocks rich in volatile components, especially lipids.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>olivine</strong>—a mineral silicate of iron and magnesium, principally (Mg,Fe)<sub>2</sub>SiO<sub>4</sub>, found in igneous and metamorphic rocks occurring in basalt, peridotite, and other basic igneous rocks.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>ooze</strong>—wet mud or slime found at the bottom of an ocean, lake, or river composed mostly of organic and skeletal remains of plankton.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>ophiolite</strong>— an assemblage of mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks ranging from basalt to gabbro and peridotite, including rocks derived from them by later metamorphism (such as serpentinite), and whose origin is associated with the upper mantle and the formation of oceanic crust at spreading centers in deep ocean basin settings.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>organic maturation</strong>—the gradual metamorphic processes that take place over time, involving burial and geothermal heating, that convert organic remain preserved in sediments into petroleum (oil, gas, and tar) or coal (conversion of plant material to peat, lignite, subbituminous coal, and anthracite coal, in increasing order of maturation.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>orogenesis</strong>—the process of mountain range formation, especially by a folding and faulting of the earth's crust under compressional forces.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>oxbow</strong>—a crescent lake on a stream floodplain formed when a meandering stream channel is cut off and isolated by changes in a stream channel.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>P wave</strong>—a compressional wave (P) is a seismic body wave that shakes the ground back and forth in the same direction and the opposite direction as the direction the wave is moving.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>pa'hoe'hoe</strong>—textural description basaltic lava forming smooth undulating or ropy masses on the surface of a rapidly cooling lava flow.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>paleomagnetism</strong>—the study of the fixed orientation of a rock's magnetic minerals as originally aligned at the time of the rock's formation. Paleomagnetism is usually the result of thermo-remanent magnetization (magnetization that occurs in igneous rocks as they cool below the Curie Point). Igneous rocks may keep their magnetic orientation they obtain at the time they form (if they are not altered). This magnetic signature is preserved, even if the landmass they are is moving.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>Paleozoic</strong>—the era of geologic time spanning about 543 to 248 million years ago. The Paleozoic Era follows the Precambrian Era and precedes the Mesozoic Era. The term also applies to rocks that formed and accumulated in that time period.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>Pangaea</strong>—a supercontinent comprising all the continental crust of the earth, theorized to have existed in late Paleozoic and through early Mesozoic times before the component continents separated and migrated into their current configuration.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>passive continental margin</strong>—a passive margin is the transition between oceanic and continental crust which is not an active plate margin. Examples of passive margins are the Atlantic and Gulf coastal regions which represent setting where thick accumulations of sedimentary materials have buried ancient rifted continental boundaries formed by the opening of the Atlantic Ocean basin.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>pater noster lakes</strong>—a series of moraine-dammed lakes formed by the intermittent retreat of a valley glacier in a mountainous region.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>peat</strong>—an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation matter that has a brown, soil-like character typical of boggy, acid ground or swampy setting.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>pediment</strong>—a gently inclined erosional surface carved into bedrock, typically covered with stream gravel that has developed at the foot of mountains. It develops when running water erodes most of the mass of the mountain down to a base-level consistent with surrounding alluvial fans in an arid or semiarid region.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>pegmatite</strong>—a coarsely crystalline granite or other igneous rock with crystals several centimeters in length, and sometimes containing rare minerals rich in rare elements such as uranium, tungsten, beryllium and tantalum.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>peridotite</strong>—a dense, coarse-grained plutonic rock containing a large amount of olivine, considered to be the main constituent of the earth's mantle.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>permeability</strong>—a measure of the ability of a porous material (rock or unconsolidated sediments) to transmit fluids.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>petroleum</strong>—a natural flammable liquid mixture of hydrocarbons that is present in certain rock strata and can be extracted and refined to produce fuels including gasoline, kerosene, diesel oil, or chemically converted to other materials, such as plastics, and other petroleum-based byproducts.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>phaneritic</strong>—a term usually used to refer to igneous rock grain size and texture. It means that the size of matrix grains in the rock are large enough to be distinguished with the unaided eye as opposed to aphanitic (which is too small to see with the naked eye).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>phenocryst</strong>—a large or conspicuous crystal in a porphyritic volcanic or igneous rock, distinct from a more fine-grained groundmass (mineral matrix).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>phreatic zone</strong>—the zone of saturated rock or sediment below the water table where pore spaces between grains or within fractures are mostly filled with water.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>phyllite</strong>—a fine-grained metamorphic rock with a well-developed laminar structure, intermediate between slate and schist.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>physical geology</strong>—the branch of geology concerned with understanding the composition of the earth and the physical changes occurring in it, based on the study of rocks, minerals, and sediments, their structures and formations, and their processes of origin and alteration.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>physiographic province</strong>—a geographic region with a specific geomorphology and often specific subsurface rock type, age, or structural elements.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>piedmont glacier</strong>—a thick, continuous ice sheet formed along the base of a mountain range formed by the spreading out and coalescing of valley glaciers supplying ices from higher mountain elevations.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>pillow basalt</strong>—a volcanic rock formation consisting of stacked pillow-shaped pods of basaltic lava formed by lava flowing and rapidly cooling on the surface of a subaerial lava flow.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>planet</strong>—a celestial body moving in an elliptical orbit around a star that is large enough to have a round shape due to internal gravitational forces.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>planktonic ooze</strong>—slimy mud on the bottom of an ocean or lakebed formed from the accumulation of skeletal and organic remains of microscopic organisms.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>plate tectonics</strong>—the scientific theory that the Earth’s outer shell is composed of several large, thin, relatively strong “plates” that move relative to one another. Movements on the faults that define plate boundaries produce most earthquakes.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>playa</strong>—an ephemeral (intermittently flooded) lake bed that occupies the lowest part of a internally drained, isolated valley in an arid or semiarid region.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>Pleistocene</strong>—the Quaternary Period is subdivided into the Pleistocene Epoch and the Holocene Epoch. The Pleistocene Epoch represents the time span of about 1.8 million to about 11,000 years ago. Many episodes of continental glaciation and intervening ice-free periods occurred within the Pleistocene Epoch. The Holocene Epoch began about 11,000 years ago, about the time that human population growth and distribution expanded worldwide.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>Pliocene</strong>—an epoch of the late Tertiary Period following the Miocene Epoch and proceeding the Quaternary Period (or Pleistocene Epoch) and representing the time span from about 5.3 to 1.8 million years ago. The cycles of ice-age glaciations and intervening warming periods began in Pliocene time.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>pluton</strong>—a body of intrusive igneous rock (plutonic rock) that crystallized from magma slowly cooling below the surface of the Earth. Types of plutons include batholiths, dikes, sills, laccoliths, stocks, and other igneous bodies.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>plutonic rock</strong>—A rock formed at considerable depth by crystallization of magma and/or by chemical alteration. It is usually medium- to coarse-grained with a granitic (phaneritic) texture.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>plutonism</strong>—formation of intrusive igneous rock by the genesis, movement and solidification of magma beneath the earth's surface.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>porosity</strong>—the state of being porous, or the ratio of the volume of all the pores (gas- or fluid-filled space) in a material to the volume of the whole.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>porphyry</strong>—A hard igneous rock containing visible crystals, usually of feldspar, in a fine-grained (microcrystalline), typically dark gray, reddish, or purplish groundmass.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>precipitation</strong>—in <em>meteorology usage</em>: rain, snow, sleet, or hail that falls to the ground; in <em>geology usage</em>: the action or process of precipitating a substance from a solution.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>pressure ridge</strong>—a topographic ridge produced by compressional forces along a strike-slip fault zone. Pressure ridges typically are located where there are bends along a fault or where faults intersect or stepover. Pressure ridges can be shutter ridges and can occur on one or both sides of a fault or within a fault zone.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>pull-apart basin</strong>—a surface depression will form along a fault where down warping of the surface occurs, such as from a developing fold or a fault-bounded graben. Closed depressions can form where extensional bends or stepovers occur along a strike-slip fault zone.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>pyroclastic flow</strong>—a dense cloud of very hot ash, lava fragments, and gases ejected explosively from a volcano and typically flowing downslope at great speed and with destructive force.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>pyroxene</strong>—Any of a large class of rock-forming silicate minerals, generally containing containing two metallic oxides combining magnesium, iron, calcium, sodium, or aluminum and typically occurring as prismatic crystals.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>pyroxenite</strong>—a dark gray or greenish, granular intrusive igneous rock consisting chiefly of pyroxenes and olivine; a dominant rock type found in intrusive igneous rocks associated with oceanic crust.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>quartz</strong>—a hard colorless or white mineral consisting of silicon dioxide (silica), found widely in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. Pure silica forms clear quartz crystals in unconfined spaces, such as geodes or open fissures in rock; inclusion of traces of other element in quartz's crystalline structure produces varieties of semiprecious gems varieties including amethyst, citrine, rose quartz, and smoky quartz. Microcrystalline varieties of sedimentary rock composed dominantly of quartz include chert, jasper, flint, agate, and chalcedony.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>quartzite</strong>—a rock formed from the metamorphism of quartz sandstone or quartz-rich volcanic ash.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>Quaternary Period</strong>—the period of time spanning about 1.8 million years ago to the present. The Quaternary Period is subdivide into two unequal epochs–the Pleistocene Epoch extends from about 1.8 million years ago to about 11,000 years ago, and the Holocene Epoch that extends from about 11,000 years ago to the present. The Quaternary Period encompassed many cycles of ice-age continental glaciations and intervening warming periods. The Holocene Epoch corresponds with the last warming period in which we now live.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>rainshadow</strong>—the downwind side of a mountain range (or high volcano) that partially blocks the the flow of moist air, forcing precipitation on the prevailing windward side, and creates more arid conditions on the downwind side.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>recrystallization</strong>—a metamorphic process that occurs under situations of intense temperature and pressure where grains, atoms or molecules of a rock or mineral are packed closer together, creating a new crystal structure. The basic composition remains the same.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>reef</strong>—a ridge of jagged rock, coral, or sand just above or below the surface of the sea.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>regolith</strong>—a layer of loose rock debris resting on bedrock, constituting the surface of most land. Regolith can become soil with the introduction of organic residues and ongoing weathering.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>relative dating</strong>—the science determining the relative order of past events, without necessarily determining their absolute age.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>retrograde metamorphism</strong>—metamorphic changes that take place when rocks formed at great depths migrate to the surface via tectonic uplift and are exposed to lower pressure and more fluid-rich geologic settings, causing minerals to change to match surficial geologic environments.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>reverse fault</strong>—a fault in which the hanging wall has moved up relative to the foot wall.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>rhyolite</strong>—a pale fine-grained volcanic rock of granitic composition.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>rift valley</strong>—a valley that has formed along a tectonic rift. Rift valleys may be grabens or pull-apart basins, may be structurally complex, and are typically modified by erosion.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>Ring of Fire</strong>—an extensive zone of volcanic and seismic activity that coincides roughly with the borders of the Pacific Ocean basin.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>roche moutonnee</strong>—an elongate mound of bedrock worn smooth and rounded by glacial abrasion, typically with a steep slope of cliff on the downhill side formed by the plucking away of blocks of bedrock by the moving glacial ice.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>rock</strong>—relatively hard (consolidated), naturally formed mineral or petrified matter; stone; a naturally formed aggregate of mineral matter constituting a significant part of the earth's crust.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>rock cleavage</strong>—The capacity of a rock to split along certain parallel surfaces more easily than along others, such as bedding planes. Not all rocks have rock cleavage, but it is perhaps most common in low-grade to moderate-grade metamorphic rocks with a high mica content, such as slate or phyllite where crystalline structure of platy or sheet silicate minerals have been reoriented by metamorphic processes in an alignment perpendicular to the principle vector direction of stress caused by compression.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>rock cycle</strong>—the series of events in which a rock of one type is converted to one or more other types and then back to the original type.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>rock formation</strong>—The primary unit of stratigraphy, consisting of a succession of strata useful for mapping or description. A rock formation typical consists of a unique lithology (rock type) that has a relatively defined geologic age and is considered "mappable" (occurs throughout area or region, both on the surface and in the subsurface.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>rock salt</strong>—a rock dominantly composed of sodium chloride (NaCl - the mineral halite). Rock salt is an evaporite formed in restricted basins with an inflow of seawater located in an arid environmental setting.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>rock slide</strong>—the usually rapid downslope movement of newly detached segments of bedrock.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>rockfall</strong>—The relatively free falling or precipitous movement of a newly detached segment of bedrock of any size from a cliff or very steep slope; it is most frequent in mountainous areas during spring when there is repeated freezing and thawing of water in cracks in rock. Movement may be straight down or in a series of leaps and bounds down the slope; it is not guided by an underlying slip surface (like a slump).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>rupture zone</strong>—the area of the Earth through which fault movement occurred during an earthquake. For large earthquakes, the section of the fault that ruptured may be several hundred miles in length. Ruptures may or may not extend to the ground surface.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>sag pond</strong>—a natural depression associated with a fault or associated with a pull-apart basin along a fault system can hold water, even temporarily.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>S wave</strong>—a shear wave (S) is a seismic body wave that shakes the ground back and forth perpendicular to the direction the wave is moving.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>salt pan</strong>—a shallow basin, usually in a desert region, containing salt, gypsum, sodium carbonate, or other evaporite minerals that was deposited from an evaporated salt lake (playa) setting.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>sandstone</strong>—a sedimentary rock formed by the consolidation and compaction of sand and held together by a natural cement, such as silica, calcite, and iron-oxide minerals.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>scarp</strong>—a line of cliffs or a steep slope produced by faulting, slumping, or erosion. Scarp is an abbreviation for the word escarpment—meaning essentially the same thing.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>schist</strong>—any medium-grained to coarse-grained metamorphic rocks composed of laminated, often flaky parallel layers of chiefly micaceous minerals.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>schistocity</strong>—the type of rock foliation that characterizes schist, resulting from the parallel arrangement of coarse-grained platy minerals, such as mica, chlorite, and talc.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>science</strong>—The systematic knowledge of the physical or material world gained through observation and experimentation. The overall goal of science is to discover underlying patterns in the natural world. The fundamental assumption of science—"The natural world behaves in a consistent and predictable manner."</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>scientific method</strong>—The principles and empirical processes of discovery and demonstration considered characteristic of or necessary for scientific investigation, generally involving the observation of phenomena, the formulation of a hypothesis concerning the phenomena, experimentation to demonstrate the truth or falseness of the hypothesis, and a conclusion that validates or modifies the hypothesis.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>sea level</strong>—the average level of the sea's surface (including tides or seasonal changes), used in reckoning the height of geographical features such as hills and as a barometric standard.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>seafloor spreading</strong>—the process by which new oceanic crust is formed by the convective upwelling of magma at mid-ocean ridges, resulting in the continuous lateral displacement of existing oceanic crust.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>seamount</strong>—an underwater mountain rising from the ocean floor and having a peaked or flat-topped summit below the surface of the sea.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>sedimentary</strong>—Materials consisting of sediments or formed by deposition. The word sedimentary applies to both the processes and the products of deposition. Examples of sedimentary rocks include shale, sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, and chert.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>sedimentary rock</strong>—rock that has formed through the deposition and solidification of sediment, especially sediment transported by water (rivers, lakes, and oceans), ice ( glaciers), and wind. Sedimentary rocks are often deposited in layers, and frequently contain fossils.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>sediments</strong>—solid fragments of inorganic or organic material that come from the weathering of rock and soil erosion, and are carried and deposited by wind, water, or ice.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>seismic hazard</strong>—The potential for damaging effects caused by earthquakes. The level of hazard depends on the magnitude of likely quakes, the distance from the fault that could cause quakes, and the type of ground materials at a site.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>seismic waves</strong>—shock wave and vibrations in the Earth which issue from the focus of an earthquake—; a result of an earthquake, impact, or explosion, or some other process that imparts low-frequency acoustic energy.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>seismicity</strong>—The likelihood of an area being subject to earthquakes, or the phenomenon of earth movements.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>Seismograph</strong>—a device used to record earthquake shaking, used to determine the distance, magnitude and intensity of earthquakes. Compression (P) waves travel faster than shear (S) waves. P waves travel faster than S waves<strong>—</strong>P waves move about 4 miles ( 7 km) per second. whereas. Using a precision clock and three seismographs, the location of an earthquake epicenter can be precisely located.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>serpentinite</strong>—a metamorphic ultramafic rock consisting almost entirely of serpentine group minerals (such as antigorite and chrysotile). Serpentinite forms from the alteration of mafic silicate materials, such as olivine and pyroxene (rocks, peridotite and pyroxenite) during metamorphism. Accessory chlorite, magnetite, and talc may be present. The State rock of California.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>shale</strong>—a soft, finely stratified sedimentary rock that formed from consolidated mud or clay and can be split easily into fragile plates, such as along bedding plains.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>sheeted dike</strong>—an igneous dike in which the molten material has squeezed into expanding vertical fractures so that it takes on a layered appearance, commonly associated with volcanism along spreading centers along mid-ocean ridges.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>shield</strong>—a large area of exposed Precambrian-age crystalline igneous and high-grade metamorphic rocks that form tectonically stable areas. In all cases, the age of these rocks is greater than 570 million years and sometimes dates back 2 to 3.5 billion years.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>shutter ridges</strong>—A shutter ridge is a ridge formed by vertical, lateral, or oblique displacement on a fault that crosses an area having ridge and valley topography, with the displaced part of the ridge “shutting in” the valley. Shutter ridges typically are found in association with offset drainages.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>sidehill benches</strong>—A step-like surface on the side of a hill or mountain. Both recent fault activity or erosional differences of bedrock lithology across a fault may produce sidehill benches and associated linear scarps. Sidehill benches may also form from slumping that may or may not be associated with faulting.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>silicate minerals</strong>—the largest and most important class of rock-forming minerals, constituting approximately 90 percent of the crust of the Earth. They are classified based on the structure of their silicate group. Silicate minerals all contain silicon and oxygen.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>sill</strong>—a tabular, typically more horizontal than vertical, sheet of intrusive igneous rock that has intruded between older layers of sedimentary rock, beds of volcanic lava or tuff, or even along the direction of foliation in metamorphic rock.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>slate</strong>—a fine-grained gray, green, or bluish metamorphic rock easily split into smooth, flat plates along cleavage planes.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>slickensides</strong>—a polished and striated rock surface produced by friction along a fault.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>slip</strong>—the relative displacement of formerly adjacent points on opposite sides of a fault, measured along the fault surface.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>slump</strong>— a type of landslide where the downward slipping mass of unconsolidated material or rock moves as a unit. A slump block usually displays backward rotation and on a more or less horizontal axis parallel to the slope or cliff from which it descends. Slumps typically form a fault-like escarpment and may occur at the head of a landslide.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>soil</strong>—The unconsolidated mineral and organic material on the immediate surface of the Earth that serves as a natural medium for the growth of land plants. Soil is the unconsolidated mineral or organic matter on the surface of the Earth that has been subjected to and shows effects of genetic (source material composition) and environmental factors such as <em>climate</em> (including water and temperature effects), and <em>macro- and microorganisms</em> acting on parent material over a period of time. A product-soil differs from the material from which it is derived in many physical, chemical, biological, and morphological properties and characteristics.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>solifluction</strong>—the slow, downhill movement of soil or other material in areas typically underlain by frozen ground.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>sorting</strong>—process by which sedimentary particles of similar size, shape, or density are selected and separated from associated but dissimilar particles by the agent of transportation (water and wind).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>speleothem</strong>—a structure formed in a cavern by the deposition of minerals (usually calcite) from water, including such features as stalactites, stalagmites, columns, flowstone, or other features found in caverns that form above the water table.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>splay</strong>—a small fan-shaped or outspread alluvial deposit formed where an overloaded stream breaks through a levee (artificial or natural) and deposits its material (often coarse-grained) on the floodplain.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>spreading center</strong>— A linear area where new crust forms where two crustal plates are moving apart, such as along a mid-oceanic ridge. Spreading centers are typically seismically active regions in ocean basins and may be regions of active or frequent volcanism.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>spring</strong>—any natural occurrence where water flows to the surface of the earth from below the surface, typically in locations where the water table in an aquifer meets the ground surface.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>spring tide</strong>—the exceptionally high and low tides that occur at the time of the new moon or the full moon when the sun, moon, and earth are approximately aligned.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>stalactite</strong>—a tapering structure hanging like an icicle from the roof of a cave, formed of calcium salts deposited by dripping water.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>stalagmite</strong>—A mound or tapering column rising from the floor of a cave, formed of calcium salts deposited by dripping water and often eventually uniting with a stalactite to form a column.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>star dune</strong>—a dune with three or four arms radiating from its usually higher center so that it resembles a star in shape. Star dunes form when winds blow from three or four directions, or when the wind direction shifts frequently.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>stepover</strong>—Closely spaced strike-slip faults within a greater fault zone over which the total displacement is distributed.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>steppe</strong>—a large area of flat unforested grassland, such as the Great Plains region of the United States and Canada.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>stock</strong>—a stock is a discordant igneous intrusion having a surface exposure of less than 40 square miles, differing from batholiths only in being smaller. Circular or elliptical stocks may have been vents feeding former volcanoes</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>strain</strong>—the amount of deformation an object experiences compared to its original size and shape.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>stratigraphy</strong>—the study of the composition, relative positions, etc., of rock strata in order to determine their geological history.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>stratum</strong>— A bed or layer of sedimentary rock having approximately the same composition throughout (plural is strata).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>stream</strong>—a flow of water in a channel or bed, as a brook, rivulet, or small river.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>stream discharge</strong>—the volume of water to pass a given point on a stream bank per unit of time, usually expressed in cubic meters of water per second.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>stream gradient</strong>—the grade (slope) measured by the ratio of drop in a stream per unit distance, usually expressed as feet per mile or meters per kilometer.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>stream terrace</strong>—one of a possible series of level surfaces on a stream valley flanking and parallel to a stream channel and above that marks the level of a floodplain in the geologic past.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>stress</strong>—the force acting on a rock or another solid to deform it, measured in kilograms per square centimeter or pounds per square inch.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>striations</strong>—parallel grooves such as: the scratches left by a glacier on rocks</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>strike-slip fault</strong>—A generally vertical fault along which the two sides move horizontally past each other. If the block opposite an observer looking across the fault moves to the right, the slip style is termed “right lateral.” If the block moves to the left, the motion is termed “left lateral.” California’s San Andreas Fault is the most famous example of a right-lateral strike-slip fault. Strike-slip faults produce produce a variety of landforms including shutter ridges, pull-apart basins, sag ponds, and deflected streams.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>strike</strong>—The direction taken by a structural surface, such as a layer of rock or a fault plane, as it intersects the horizontal.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>structure of the earth</strong>—The earth's lithosphere has a central core (solid & liquid), the mantle (including asthenosphere), and the crust.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>subduction zone</strong>—A plate boundary along which one plate of the Earth’s outer shell descends (subducts) at an angle beneath another. A subduction zone is usually marked by a deep trench on the sea floor. An example is the Cascadia Subduction Zone offshore of Washington, Oregon, and northern California. Most tsunamis are generated by subduction-zone-related earthquakes.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>subsidence</strong>—the lowering of the land surface, examples include downwarping by folding, crustal extension, gravitational collapse or other tectonic forces. Subsidence also occur in areas where extensive extraction of water or petroleum allows pore spaces between grains or fractures in rock to collapse, reducing volume, and resulting in subsidence of the land's surface.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>susceptibility</strong>—the state or fact of being likely or liable to be influenced or harmed by a particular thing. In geology, the term is used as a means of classifying areas that are prone to natural hazards, such as landsliding, liquefaction, flooding, etc.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>syncline</strong>—a trough or fold of stratified rock in which the strata slope upward from the axis; opposite of an <em>anticline</em>.</td></tr>
<tr><td height="28"><strong>tafoni</strong>— small, fist- to head-sized, cave-like features found in granular rock such as sandstone, appearing tiny pits, rounded entrances and smooth concave walls. They often occur in groups, forming a honeycomb-like form, typically occurring of cliff faces, in overhanging vertical places, on large boulders, and rocky outcrops.and are that can riddle a hillside.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>talus</strong>—a sloping mass or cone-shaped deposit of rock fragments at the foot of a cliff.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>tarn</strong>—a small mountain lake, especially one formed by glaciers; typically found within the basin of a cirque.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>tectonism</strong>—the cause, or result of, structural deformation of the earth's crust.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>tephra</strong>—rock fragments and particles ejected by a volcanic eruptions.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>terrace</strong>—a relatively level bench or step-like surface breaking the continuity of a slope. Natural bench-like terrace features include elevated-marine terraces (along rising sea coasts), stream terraces (along incising streams), or structural terraces (such as along a fault).</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>terrain</strong>—a stretch or area of land that shares common physical features: examples: hilly terrain, rocky terrain, flat terrain.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>terrane</strong>—a fault-bounded area or region with a distinctive stratigraphy, structure, and geological history.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>Tertiary</strong>—the first period of the Cenozoic Era (after the Cretaceous Period of the Mesozoic Era). The Tertiary Period spans the time of about 65 to 1.8 million years ago. The Tertiary Period is subdivided into 5 epochs—Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene). It is followed by the Pleistocene Epoch of the Quaternary Period.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>theory</strong>—a set of statements or principles devised to explain a group of facts or phenomena, especially one that has been repeatedly tested or is widely accepted and can be used to make predictions about natural phenomena. (A theory is also defined as an assumption based on limited information or knowledge.)</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>thrust fault</strong>—a fault with a dip angle of 45º or less over its extent on which the hanging wall appears to have moved upward relative to the foot wall. Horizontal compression or rotational shear is responsible for displacement. (See also reverse fault and oblique-slip fault.)</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>tidal flat</strong>—a nearly flat coastal area (at or near sea level) that is alternately covered and exposed by the tides, and consisting of unconsolidated sediments.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>till</strong>—unsorted material deposited directly by glacial ice and consisting of rock fragments ranging from large boulders to sand, fine silt, and clay.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>trace fossil</strong>—a fossil impression of a footprint, trail, burrow, or other trace of an animal rather than of the animal itself.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>transform boundary</strong>—when plates slide past each other creating fault systems along plate margins. Examples include theSan Andreas Fault and major faults in Pakistan, Turkey, and along the Jordan River/Dead Sea.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>transform fault</strong>— a special variety of strike-slip fault along which the displacement suddenly stops or changes form. Many transform faults are associated with mid-oceanic ridges and plate boundaries that show pure strike-slip displacement, like the San Andreas Fault.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>transpiration</strong>—The process by which water in plants is transferred as water vapor to the atmosphere.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>travertine</strong>—White or light-colored calcareous rock deposited from mineral springs; or a common name for freshwater limestone deposits. Cavern speleothems are typically consist of travertine.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>trophic respiration</strong>—processes in organisms that result in release of energy related to the consumption of substances that go through a chemical changes. These processes may result in the excretion of substances that can alter and/or accumulate in the environment.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>tsunami</strong>—a very long and/or high sea wave or coastal serge of water caused by an earthquake or other disturbance.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>tufa</strong>—calcareous and siliceous rock deposits of springs, lakes, or ground water.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>tundra</strong>—A vast, flat, treeless Arctic region of Europe, Asia, and North America in which the subsoil is permanently frozen.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>turbidity flows</strong>—a turbid, dense current of sediments in suspension moving along downslope and along the bottom of a ocean or lake.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>ultramafic</strong>—a rock composed chiefly of mafic minerals (rich in iron and magnesium, and less than about 45 percent silica, such as olivine, augite, or hypersthene. Pyroxene and serpentinite are ultramafic rocks.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>unconformity</strong>—a buried erosion surface separating two rock masses or strata of different ages, indicating that sediment deposition was not continuous.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>uniformitarianism</strong>—the theory that all geologic phenomena may be explained as the result of existing forces having operated uniformly from the origin of the earth to the present time.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>unloading</strong>—expansion of compressed rocks (previously deeply buried) by the removal of overburden, allowing rocks to expand and fracture, commonly resulting in the sheeting off of layers of rocks.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>uplift</strong>—geologic processes that cause the land to rise in elevation, examples include vertical movement along a fault, compressional folding of the crust, or underground intrusion of magma beneath a volcano.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>vadoze zone</strong>—also termed the <em>unsaturated zone</em>, is the typically shallow subsurface interval between the land surface and the underlying phreatic zone or zone of saturation). The vadose zone extends from the top of the ground surface to the water table.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>ventifact</strong>—a stone on the surface in a desert environment that is unusually shaped, abraded by wind-blown sediment. Markings on ventifacts typically reflect seasonal prevailing wind patterns.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>volcanic arc</strong>—a generally curved linear belt of volcanoes above a subduction zone, including the volcanic and plutonic rocks formed there.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>volcanic tuff</strong>—a term describing rocks composed of volcanic ejecta, such as broken pieces of volcanic glass, phenocrysts, rock fragments, etc.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>volcanism</strong>—Any of various processes and phenomena associated with the surface discharge of molten rock or hot water and steam, including volcanoes, geysers, and fumaroles.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>volcano</strong>—a hill or mountain, typically conical in shape, having a crater or vent through which lava, rock fragments, hot vapor, and gas are or have been erupted from the earth's crust.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>water table</strong>—the level below which the ground is saturated with water. The water table is influenced by the gravitational flow of water underground, typically following the general topography of a landscape, but can be changed by the extraction of water from a well, or construction of a dam.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>wave diffraction</strong>—refers to various phenomena which occur when a wave encounters an obstacle or change in geometry of the seabed. For example waves are defracted when they approach a beach at an oblique angle, when the pass an island, or when they pass a point or other structure at the mouth of a harbor.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>wave of oscillation</strong>—a wave in the open ocean where movement in the water below a passing wave is in a vertical circular motion.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>wave of translation</strong>—a tumbling wave that continues onshore after it crests when entering a shallow coastal setting.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>weathering</strong>—the gradual destruction of rock under surface conditions. Weathering may involve physical processes (mechanical weathering) or chemical activity (chemical weathering). Biological activity can also result in weathering the can be construed as mechanical, biological, or both.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>Wisconsin Stage</strong>—The last, most recent glaciation period within the current ice age occurring in the geologic time interval about 110,000 to 10,000 years ago, at the end of the Pleistocene Epoch. Note that Antarctica and Greenland are still enduring ice-age conditions, whereas continental glaciers on North America and northern Europe vanished at the end of the Wisconsin Stage.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>wrackline</strong>—an accumulation of shell material and debris that typically marks the location of the last high tide cycle on a beach or after a storm.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>xenolith</strong>—A rock fragment foreign to the igneous mass in which it occurs. Xenoliths are commonly composed of rock derived from the sides or roof of a magma chamber.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>zone of accumulation (glacial term)</strong>—the upper part of a glacier where snow accumulation and ice formation takes place faster that it melts, forming the glacier.</td></tr>
<tr><td><strong>zone of wastage (glacial term)</strong>—The downslope end of a mountain glacier where melting outpaces the accumulation of new ice and snow.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Credits to Phil Stoffer (geologycafe.com)<br />
Used with permission.Muhammad Qasimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09422933048834961238noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8289051954418709326.post-37223508610580492012017-11-04T19:05:00.000+05:002017-11-04T19:07:14.186+05:00Explore Fascinating Geology of Lofoten Islands, Norway<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; font-family: "calibri light", sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">It is probably going to be boring what you are going to read, but if you are a geologist, please
continue reading.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "calibri light" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span><span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "calibri light" , sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">What started as a simple fun trip with some friends to Lofoten Islands in northern Norway, just became a unique geological experience. This, because I think that, as a geologist, it is completely impossible to separate fun from my profession while traveling. It's just amazing to mix your profession with your favorite hobby. </span><br />
<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "calibri light" , sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Trying to understand the rocks, the configuration of the landscapes and their phenomena, is simply priceless.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "calibri light" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhV5WcFtLS_C34p9kDTXUjvXFEr5U4xy7WntpR6W05SFVMY9LNVJRGLPDUbyaA2fSGCKIIvgrMcVt2EPqojhWkJx6Nda3zOp-3dbuD-Efo34n4jqnChvLhTeZF6O7m03X-qsZ1XKEsQ2OfC/s1600/Lofoten+%25284%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1340" data-original-width="1600" height="535" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhV5WcFtLS_C34p9kDTXUjvXFEr5U4xy7WntpR6W05SFVMY9LNVJRGLPDUbyaA2fSGCKIIvgrMcVt2EPqojhWkJx6Nda3zOp-3dbuD-Efo34n4jqnChvLhTeZF6O7m03X-qsZ1XKEsQ2OfC/s640/Lofoten+%25284%2529.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Reinebringen Mountain, Norway.<br />
View to the town of Reine and Fjords.<br />
Photo Credits: J. Sebastian Guiral</td></tr>
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; font-family: "calibri light" , sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">This time I got completely impressed with the beauty of the Fjords in Lofoten (help: what is a fjord? well basically, a fjord is a narrow and deep channel that allows the sea to enter to the land. They can be several kilometers long, so they are often confused with rivers or lakes, and can reach great depths, exceeding 1000 m. These geomorphological units are the product of sea flooding of valleys created by glacial activity).</span></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKUS9wJyyHNkKE8vqTEV6DxX_HX4vZnpblX2nSjr6c9hZ82Y4vnBEjE87QO-JLkGmXnXZujB8qc0ecCqBY0LuAoTNPPuHllfrOedjq5q4UUGQBEXbqPVgHrB0899x-A4cuacEKSqZN1dAw/s1600/Lofoten+%25283%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1200" data-original-width="1600" height="480" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKUS9wJyyHNkKE8vqTEV6DxX_HX4vZnpblX2nSjr6c9hZ82Y4vnBEjE87QO-JLkGmXnXZujB8qc0ecCqBY0LuAoTNPPuHllfrOedjq5q4UUGQBEXbqPVgHrB0899x-A4cuacEKSqZN1dAw/s640/Lofoten+%25283%2529.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Reinebringen
mountain, Reine, Norway.<br />
View to the town of Reine and Kirkefjord. U-shaped valleys and geomorphological
features associated with intense tectonic activity. Glacial lake<br />
Photo Credits: J. Sebastian Guiral</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "calibri light" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Hiking through the
perfectly carved U-shaped valleys left me speechless (above mentioned glacial
valleys). In each valley, it was possible to appreciate the sediments associated
with the activity of the glacier, that is, the Moraines (frontal and lateral), till
and reworked proglacial sediments.<br /><br /><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi3rLDBls-hOvXQ-Dhs_0HI5ffSEBrTXTZ01wWJoGR2K2HuqTJzH_S-AEI5e4Invq0Sl-Xw6Dl0jxDzZi9j-rg99IwtxMZdt7BTbwILaILcMAf4a_viujBOvHMiSdXYX0Shc0Ua1fQBXkm6/s1600/Lofoten+%25285%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1260" data-original-width="1600" height="502" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi3rLDBls-hOvXQ-Dhs_0HI5ffSEBrTXTZ01wWJoGR2K2HuqTJzH_S-AEI5e4Invq0Sl-Xw6Dl0jxDzZi9j-rg99IwtxMZdt7BTbwILaILcMAf4a_viujBOvHMiSdXYX0Shc0Ua1fQBXkm6/s640/Lofoten+%25285%2529.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Skelfjord,
Lofoten, Norway.<br />
Photo Credits: J. Sebastian Guiral<br />
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<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "calibri light" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">In addition, the typical
vegetation of Tundra is impressive (help: what is Tundra? In simple words, it
is a biome characterized by the lack of trees, the soils are mainly covered
with mosses and lichens, characteristic of circumpolar latitudes. The subsoil
is almost permanently frozen). This vegetation covered the base of the mountain
chains and snowy hills, contrasting in a perfectly artistic way and offering a
breathtaking view. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjWIhvtF2d5bXaB5z7kyIOYjw0VUUiL04rgA6j2RPnFgQET7UxvBlUTDIzz0vfrtQjYDiLuB3I5HQtn3ecduV2viuC3Swp0WdLc3Ee4BaPx6_PPhyphenhyphenaQmywq9jnSbqtP_iASCJjQ4_PPuZnD/s1600/Lofoten+%25287%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1200" data-original-width="1600" height="480" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjWIhvtF2d5bXaB5z7kyIOYjw0VUUiL04rgA6j2RPnFgQET7UxvBlUTDIzz0vfrtQjYDiLuB3I5HQtn3ecduV2viuC3Swp0WdLc3Ee4BaPx6_PPhyphenhyphenaQmywq9jnSbqtP_iASCJjQ4_PPuZnD/s640/Lofoten+%25287%2529.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Å,
Moskenes, Norway.<br />
Mosses on Precambrian gneisses and migmatites.<br />
Photo Credits: J. Sebastian Guiral</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhHtQUuJmS2qGxqUhbeY47MsD5pD7SwUuqqYGOJ4iz1X94vEWMlYTXjx-Mf71czo_S2cT5m4y77aLjBJ6Fh7MlduBiggUk1cViI_1aEf9cPkkTWhfVGu91GcIEhJHJzVRx8SNnKbNRgT8ca/s1600/Lofoten+%25289%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1302" data-original-width="1600" height="520" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhHtQUuJmS2qGxqUhbeY47MsD5pD7SwUuqqYGOJ4iz1X94vEWMlYTXjx-Mf71czo_S2cT5m4y77aLjBJ6Fh7MlduBiggUk1cViI_1aEf9cPkkTWhfVGu91GcIEhJHJzVRx8SNnKbNRgT8ca/s640/Lofoten+%25289%2529.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Reine,
Lofoten Norway.<br />
View to Reinefjorden and snowy peaks<br />
Photo Credits: J. Sebastian Guiral</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgNge6gqz8CQyc0qP1-0i9zGezEA1zLBuLp1HeyUVKLlefmlZFPsdHs4sv8tIY1dC0nyWA4PDXXXu6qle_tRFKC_NmdRrxvuUN_-DAnLi9v5WGiYNzaeUo-nznaUtKkTG5CJPFx0yxh2J-B/s1600/Lofoten+%252812%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1200" data-original-width="1600" height="480" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgNge6gqz8CQyc0qP1-0i9zGezEA1zLBuLp1HeyUVKLlefmlZFPsdHs4sv8tIY1dC0nyWA4PDXXXu6qle_tRFKC_NmdRrxvuUN_-DAnLi9v5WGiYNzaeUo-nznaUtKkTG5CJPFx0yxh2J-B/s640/Lofoten+%252812%2529.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Hamnøy, Lofoten Norway. Snowy Peaks.<br />
<span style="font-size: 12.8px;">Photo Credits: J. Sebastian Guiral</span></td></tr>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRxCn4ib-UGJmW9OYjWZH_ay54kXxoRJn45RMCA1BCd5xKKNDRdBRr0J9JOWRWn802RiUVIYybU3SZb71BOxd0ggzksclJATSDJEk-qSaH7PrxEYT5hGWz3Jsjh0Lq9Zt_xR51Zewg9sR-/s1600/Lofoten+%252814%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1200" data-original-width="1600" height="480" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRxCn4ib-UGJmW9OYjWZH_ay54kXxoRJn45RMCA1BCd5xKKNDRdBRr0J9JOWRWn802RiUVIYybU3SZb71BOxd0ggzksclJATSDJEk-qSaH7PrxEYT5hGWz3Jsjh0Lq9Zt_xR51Zewg9sR-/s640/Lofoten+%252814%2529.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "calibri light" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.12px;">Haukland beach,</span><span style="font-family: "calibri light" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.12px;"> Leknes, Lofoten, Norway</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6yzgbyzmXP09KXkaFjQMvbkvP6xzZsEnBwymhZZLzBPs2hAKVFr6Jw6WQGwC-sF-L3TnlFxW0G5_nrfC9XFyVDuaMnzbIrji9gXMcw8iKYQf3I9oJMrnHW8Oj2Lf8wZfEJ05cysI5wEje/s1600/Lofoten+%252811%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1200" data-original-width="1600" height="480" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6yzgbyzmXP09KXkaFjQMvbkvP6xzZsEnBwymhZZLzBPs2hAKVFr6Jw6WQGwC-sF-L3TnlFxW0G5_nrfC9XFyVDuaMnzbIrji9gXMcw8iKYQf3I9oJMrnHW8Oj2Lf8wZfEJ05cysI5wEje/s640/Lofoten+%252811%2529.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Snowy Peaks at Hamnøy,
Lofoten Norway.<br />
Photo Credits: J. Sebastian Guiral</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "calibri light" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">What about lithologies?
Well, broadly all those landscapes are conformed by a Precambrian basement
represented by an Archean and Paleoproterozoic metamorphic complexes of ortho-
and paragneisses, intruded by anorthosites and suites of charnokite-granites.
This basement is in tectonic contact with amphibolites and paragneisses, which
were intruded by tonalitic magmas at 470 Ma. Subsequently, at the top of the
sequence, in a rather complex structural context, volcano-sedimentary sequences
are found, ranging from the Permian to the Paleogene. These volcano-sedimentary
sequences are part of the sea floor between Greenland and Norway. All these
units are in well-marked tectonic contacts.<br /><br /><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhlzhFZA-11k2EOmQqBgVWcQejaxcXf1r9knMVgEYNKDLiL2nDcuInpBpOBHKn_osvzhkprbIXMnannaGBnf348szTOECIt7O36-DRTqNfv1A_yyUurXDHMkSRHVPlS3ECfpk1mK0QGnwUJ/s1600/Lofoten+%252816%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1200" data-original-width="1600" height="480" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhlzhFZA-11k2EOmQqBgVWcQejaxcXf1r9knMVgEYNKDLiL2nDcuInpBpOBHKn_osvzhkprbIXMnannaGBnf348szTOECIt7O36-DRTqNfv1A_yyUurXDHMkSRHVPlS3ECfpk1mK0QGnwUJ/s640/Lofoten+%252816%2529.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Utakleiv
Beach, Leknes, Lofoten, Norway.<br />
Paleoproterozoic amphibolites and gneisses.<br />
Photo Credits: J. Sebastian Guiral</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQqH4BMTT2LZHg2IMVEmQvzmdTGmAmv0NFS-pVKj8iCc0YKN6DBZXBZDSzMbra66pb9mgyeFQDdcSA0CJsv3_WdNQGHYCLgSLZSNi65za8K6M1y8_iCzUuEFA-gpsxaPJfdU31tbRPArOk/s1600/Lofoten+%252818%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1200" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQqH4BMTT2LZHg2IMVEmQvzmdTGmAmv0NFS-pVKj8iCc0YKN6DBZXBZDSzMbra66pb9mgyeFQDdcSA0CJsv3_WdNQGHYCLgSLZSNi65za8K6M1y8_iCzUuEFA-gpsxaPJfdU31tbRPArOk/s640/Lofoten+%252818%2529.jpg" width="480" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "calibri light" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Utakleiv
Beach, Leknes, Lofoten, Norway.<br />
Paleoproterozoic amphibolites and gneisses</span><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">Photo Credits: J. Sebastian Guiral</span> </td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEguw_OceUUQLifaxAQnV_hDSUgxV6M5S8kWuajYjX0Vr7DDPte08CDNJGpDczHa9Y0mI2JnH3P5tOx4kVQWFCe2c-P7TMLsg3zwD3N54Iwd3YObQO8I7FFIGLlz-c0DfhedifDhiKHn1B7W/s1600/Lofoten+%252815%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1200" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEguw_OceUUQLifaxAQnV_hDSUgxV6M5S8kWuajYjX0Vr7DDPte08CDNJGpDczHa9Y0mI2JnH3P5tOx4kVQWFCe2c-P7TMLsg3zwD3N54Iwd3YObQO8I7FFIGLlz-c0DfhedifDhiKHn1B7W/s640/Lofoten+%252815%2529.jpg" width="480" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Paleoproterozoic amphibolites and gneisses at Haukland beach, Leknes, Lofoten, Norway<br />
Photo Credits: J. Sebastian Guiral<span style="font-size: 12.8px;"> </span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; font-family: "calibri light" , sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">Finally, in addition to the geological stuff, the sunsets, perfect beaches, rainbows, snowstorms, the strong rain and a whole bunch of climatic phenomena associated with these high latitudes, make the Lofoten Islands one of the places. I have enjoyed a lot being a geologist. </span><br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjK0xDD5vbi46h5Tun6DjZKHpVn7eO9LvfppNgS1j0BTdjZSPmif7pg1yhCxg59jSgGds31ggLROOwN-01LNcj5tLLsG7si_3RSiQ3QsCkV-ggQfngiSKqdTqlagtlZQYIMmjUoHXiT5iZU/s1600/11.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="960" height="480" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjK0xDD5vbi46h5Tun6DjZKHpVn7eO9LvfppNgS1j0BTdjZSPmif7pg1yhCxg59jSgGds31ggLROOwN-01LNcj5tLLsG7si_3RSiQ3QsCkV-ggQfngiSKqdTqlagtlZQYIMmjUoHXiT5iZU/s640/11.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Reine,
Lofoten Norway.<br />
View of Reinefjorden and snowy peaks<br />
Photo Credits: J. Sebastian Guiral<span style="font-size: 12.8px;"> </span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<br /></div>
<span style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; font-family: "calibri light" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">This is what I like about this
profession, trying to understand a bit about such a complex, beautiful and huge
planet.</span><br />
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<br /></div>
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<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "calibri light" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">If you are a geologist and
feel the same as me while traveling, let me congratulate you.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "calibri light" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">You have a beautiful
profession!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDM2ZRj3flttC_bCQFmRAOKmQscl-hFejYZytuIdmIKNxHFJZ8ZOCWrC-h2nju1PHT4tIUjCEPFRqYqPdhyphenhyphen6ZM6Q6IAEKKjqERTWCnogOR_J_9WKaelJSJ2QnfmTsiEfL0pwI80TrCYcOF/s1600/qq.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="960" height="480" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDM2ZRj3flttC_bCQFmRAOKmQscl-hFejYZytuIdmIKNxHFJZ8ZOCWrC-h2nju1PHT4tIUjCEPFRqYqPdhyphenhyphen6ZM6Q6IAEKKjqERTWCnogOR_J_9WKaelJSJ2QnfmTsiEfL0pwI80TrCYcOF/s640/qq.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Sebas enjoying<span style="font-size: 12.8px;"> rain in Å</span>,
Moskenes, Norway.<br />
Photo Credits: J. Sebastian Guiral<span style="font-size: 12.8px;"> </span><br />
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="960" height="480" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEigHKUlDhhoqSmPMPzjEczRP5ST7TgHN-9dyj_AoNix2H_xTjyagIo_Cx_qQTtLVd19UXbunQP20e_c5kncKfwl0ztOyMP0R0AoaYMSbdacpV-dWIvNGiEUG2TFjhrDWkQBrjy37nwztkWf/s640/q.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="640" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Sebas exploring Paleoproterozoic amphibolites and gneisses at Utakleiv
Beach, Leknes, Lofoten, Norway.<br />
Photo Credits: J. Sebastian Guiral<span style="font-size: 12.8px;"> </span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEigHKUlDhhoqSmPMPzjEczRP5ST7TgHN-9dyj_AoNix2H_xTjyagIo_Cx_qQTtLVd19UXbunQP20e_c5kncKfwl0ztOyMP0R0AoaYMSbdacpV-dWIvNGiEUG2TFjhrDWkQBrjy37nwztkWf/s1600/q.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></a></div>
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<b style="text-align: start;">About author</b><span style="text-align: start;">: </span><span style="font-family: "calibri light" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">J. Sebastian Guiral is a Geological Engineer from the National University of Colombia. He is currently pursuing his master's program in Georesources Engineering at the Luleå University of Technology in Sweden. He also has studied at the University of Liege in Belgium and at University of Lorraine in France. As a geologist, he has worked in important engineering and research projects in his country, which include geomechanics of underground excavations, geodynamics and geomorphology. Currently, his interests are focused on economic geology, exploration, mining and mineral processing techniques. </span><span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: "calibri light" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri light" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">You can contact with J. Sebastian Gujral at </span><span lang="EN-US" style="text-indent: 14.2pt;"><a href="mailto:sebasguiralv@gmail.com" style="text-indent: 14.2pt;">sebasguiralv@gmail.com</a> or at </span><span style="font-family: "calibri light" , sans-serif; text-indent: 14.2pt;">Instagram: @sebasguiralv<br /><br />We are grateful to J. Sebastian Gujral for sharing his knowledge and adventures with us. You can also contribute share your geological adventures with us. See details <a href="http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/p/contribution-to-lg.html" target="_blank">here</a>.</span></div>
<br />
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<span style="font-family: "calibri light" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
Muhammad Qasimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09422933048834961238noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8289051954418709326.post-69434984285309236052017-10-20T02:49:00.000+05:002017-11-05T03:10:35.376+05:00Our aim and YOUR support!<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-Kmi3kOc4II3QgRgPsC0XfBMXf78ruPJBxP3J8tBQDV-0UmsgDA6hrXt9u3WiRIj8vdyWazcWDV8qYyeTknJMr1cUJVKv2LqOMGpdAVeMM35SEwZE7VDh0K2dNbvH4fUuGg33V1HpQVif/s1600/shutterstock_143116627.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="571" data-original-width="1000" height="363" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-Kmi3kOc4II3QgRgPsC0XfBMXf78ruPJBxP3J8tBQDV-0UmsgDA6hrXt9u3WiRIj8vdyWazcWDV8qYyeTknJMr1cUJVKv2LqOMGpdAVeMM35SEwZE7VDh0K2dNbvH4fUuGg33V1HpQVif/s640/shutterstock_143116627.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">(Iceland)</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; font-family: "georgia" , serif; font-size: 17px; white-space: pre-wrap;">
Our aim to run this website is to promote </span><span class="_4yxo" style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; font-family: "georgia" , serif; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; white-space: pre-wrap;">Geology.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; font-family: "georgia" , serif; font-size: 17px; white-space: pre-wrap;">
We strive to encourage students' research by promoting "scope" of Geology through sharing articles, blogs, photos, documentaries and videos.
</span><span class="_4yxo _4yxp" style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; font-family: "georgia" , serif; font-size: 17px; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; white-space: pre-wrap;">So how we are doing it?</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; font-family: "georgia" , serif; font-size: 17px; white-space: pre-wrap;">
We publish blogs and articles at our </span><a data-lynx-mode="asynclazy" data-lynx-uri="https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fgeologylearn.blogspot.com%2F&h=ATPEnChI3jEOEVECNOPWYIVYDtPRw0SBxmVLsMm2moIrB4oBW1JGdQ3VpCx5yKPEffXVu8Nqs26WY4iWfKH2iW2UkGVW04A0EcIdL8rOO0FLhtpaZI9sZx3sdKG-ei9ldEFX5iGuZ1jZ5Q" href="https://geologylearn.blogspot.com/" rel="noopener nofollow" style="background-color: white; color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 17px; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: pre-wrap;" target="_blank">website</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; font-family: "georgia" , serif; font-size: 17px; white-space: pre-wrap;">.
We hosts </span><a data-lynx-mode="asynclazy" href="https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fgeologylearn.blogspot.com%2Fp%2Flive-virtual-field-tours.html&h=ATM6VDrzvsG5BONd10LY6rY2_kEIU3qRJ4lGxAQcbqct9bqtsQAKojbBpsOeTLhFbkqil5LFKyqmaVV_A0i83ywtWLNt6s3rggUpNRZG497oiqfawY7Eg-UVRe2mE9dSI7dzrqM8ShkOJg" rel="noopener nofollow" style="background-color: white; color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 17px; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: pre-wrap;" target="_blank">Live Virtual Field Tours</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; font-family: "georgia" , serif; font-size: 17px; white-space: pre-wrap;"> with the support of our contributors from all around the world to encourage everyone to learn geology.
We also make and share our own geology educational videos.
We made a group named as “</span><a href="https://www.facebook.com/groups/505348912994766/" style="background-color: white; color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 17px; text-decoration-line: none; white-space: pre-wrap;">Learning Geology community</a><span style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; font-family: "georgia" , serif; font-size: 17px; white-space: pre-wrap;">” that has now more than 22,000 members from all over the world and the group is expanding more and more.
We always do our best to share every geologic news and discovery at our social media sites.
We love to give announcement of new and upcoming geology related books at our page.
We appreciate other geology websites and channels by sharing frequently their content at our website.
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjeFDT4UhgEliA94MNL0BhmYQKNQeKhtwPKTaYy88OYRREtvX8H2zRQ45x3sFGGY5HPVMNgyY8oYPTs7x7MeRiZUO6fUSxqew48pj6aQX9EB4aQ3SFSelDdvTlTKPVrzAmdjo465ygeWywE/s1600/17457397_841518502679302_8804668126304079296_n.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="960" data-original-width="960" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjeFDT4UhgEliA94MNL0BhmYQKNQeKhtwPKTaYy88OYRREtvX8H2zRQ45x3sFGGY5HPVMNgyY8oYPTs7x7MeRiZUO6fUSxqew48pj6aQX9EB4aQ3SFSelDdvTlTKPVrzAmdjo465ygeWywE/s640/17457397_841518502679302_8804668126304079296_n.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Geologist Laura Crossey stands at the edge of a weathering pit overlooking Lake Powell in early March.<br />
Photo by <a aria-controls="js_wm" aria-describedby="js_wn" aria-haspopup="true" data-hovercard-prefer-more-content-show="1" data-hovercard="/ajax/hovercard/page.php?id=328073044206201&extragetparams=%7B%22directed_target_id%22%3A0%7D" href="https://www.facebook.com/garyladdphotography/" id="js_wo" style="color: #365899; cursor: pointer; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: left;">Gary Ladd Photography</a></td></tr>
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</span><span class="_4yxo _4yxp" style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; font-family: "georgia" , serif; font-size: 17px; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; white-space: pre-wrap;">We need YOU!
</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; font-family: "georgia" , serif; font-size: 17px; white-space: pre-wrap;">Our success would not have been possible without your consistent support and encouragement. Your passion for geology drives us to continue this amazing work.
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</span><span class="_4yxo" style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; font-family: "georgia" , serif; font-size: 17px; font-weight: bold; white-space: pre-wrap;">Keep Learning Geology!
</span><span class="_4yxp" style="background-color: white; color: #1d2129; font-family: "georgia" , serif; font-size: 17px; font-style: italic; white-space: pre-wrap;">-Team Learning Geology</span>Muhammad Qasimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09422933048834961238noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8289051954418709326.post-39885986934807327702017-09-10T17:27:00.003+05:002017-09-10T18:42:26.244+05:00Oil drilling Rig<h2>
What is Rig?</h2>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQ8__uijTN_Jx7LJsirQ7tDaOqJBjncl4D92hSrNq0HzozJ-RxFWidDIvcz5adPaoNZys13upvZ-rsWdC2zxyuSEI7kihZAK61gz4qdEJBctogelm2a0ieWZg8ca-S7WQFeX49CpXdL9c/s1600/20170823_084703_Richtone%2528HDR%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1200" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQ8__uijTN_Jx7LJsirQ7tDaOqJBjncl4D92hSrNq0HzozJ-RxFWidDIvcz5adPaoNZys13upvZ-rsWdC2zxyuSEI7kihZAK61gz4qdEJBctogelm2a0ieWZg8ca-S7WQFeX49CpXdL9c/s320/20170823_084703_Richtone%2528HDR%2529.jpg" width="240" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Owais Khattak at<br />KCA deutag 72 Location Makori East 6 MOL well</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
A drilling rig is a machine intend to drill hole in the Earth crust. Drilling rigs are massive structures which are used to drill hole for water, oil or natural gas. For water the rigs can be small, moved easily by one person which are termed as auger. But for oil or natural gas motives it can be very huge structures as you can see in the picture where it seems small but is tall about 46 meters. Drilling rigs can be mounted on trucks usually used for water wells or shallow wells. Small to medium-sized drilling rigs are mobile, such as those used in mineral exploration drilling, blast-hole, water wells and environmental investigations. Larger rigs are capable of drilling through thousands of metres of the Earth's crust, using large "mud pumps" to circulate drilling mud (slurry) through the drill bit and up the casing annulus, for cooling and removing the "cuttings" while a well is drilled. Hoists in the rig can lift hundreds of tons of pipe. Other equipment can force acid or sand into reservoirs to facilitate extraction of the oil or natural gas; and in remote locations there can be permanent living accommodation and catering for crews (which may be more than a hundred). Marine rigs may operate thousands of miles distant from the supply base with infrequent crew rotation or cycle.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
As you see the rig in the picture where I stands with it, its a huge structure which is intended to drill deep into the Earth crust. This rig is 2000 horse power and able to drill deep because it can lift huge weight of the drill pipes. </div>
<h3>
Rig components</h3>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Rig is basically made up of five components without which a rig is incomplete which will be discussed below and the components are</div>
<div>
<ol>
<li style="text-align: justify;">Power</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">Circulation system</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">Hoisting system</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">Rotation </li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">Blowout preventer (BOP)</li>
</ol>
<h4 style="text-align: justify;">
Power</h4>
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
A rig is always operated with some energy for the whole of the rig to operate which can be generated through some generators or by placing engines. The rig above was using five generators where three were operational for the rig every time because one cannot stop the rig it costs the operation and two were as backup engines. The power is necessary for a rig or its just a tall standing structure.</div>
<h4 style="text-align: justify;">
Circulation system</h4>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Circulation system in terms of rig is mud (slurry) which is made up of mud, water or oil which ever type of mud is required for the subsurface formation, and mixture of chemicals which includes gel, barite for increasing weight, caustic soda, defoamation etc. The mud is pumped from the mud tanks by mud pumps and travels through pipes into drill pipes which goes all the way down into the hole in pipes and gets out through holes in bit and returns to surface via annulus. Annulus is the inner diameter of the hole from which mud comes out to the surface bringing cuttings from the bore hole and creating mud cakes around the hole walls. The mud when comes out of the hole it goes to shakers where mud and well cuttings are separated. The mud also exerts hydrostatic pressure on the formation so that any fluid or gas from formation doesn't enters the bore hole.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj77jcRFjuUOojvbDAzaYfDQEYacmVPtN-cV6tk8JWJXplK4O_yFrQHjyWMWuz66jh7jbo6RWtWzdYbEyHnSQawPvcrG3KGJ5fudrZdqR7knjcP5Z0cDAKapBziTdsqGLACel2Pg1wrFzw/s1600/20170828_212442.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1200" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj77jcRFjuUOojvbDAzaYfDQEYacmVPtN-cV6tk8JWJXplK4O_yFrQHjyWMWuz66jh7jbo6RWtWzdYbEyHnSQawPvcrG3KGJ5fudrZdqR7knjcP5Z0cDAKapBziTdsqGLACel2Pg1wrFzw/s320/20170828_212442.jpg" width="240" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Mud cake (1mm) produced in the lab with currently used mud which depicts the inner hole scenario.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<h4 style="text-align: justify;">
Hoisting System</h4>
<div>
Hoisting system is done by the top drive system (TDS) which is held by strings and pulleys atop. The hoisting system is responsible for lifting the heavy weight of the drill pipes. If you cannot pull out or run in the drill pipes you cannot drill the hole. </div>
<h4>
Rotation</h4>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Rotation refers to the rotation of drill pipes which in turn rotates the drill bit deep down the hole and cuts the formation. As the drill bit rotates and cuts the formation, if cuttings are not removed from the deep down hole the drill bit can stuck. If not stuck the drill bit will further be crushing the cutting and not the formation this is where the mud works comes in. It lifts up the cutting so that it can drill further and also cools down the bit as friction heats it up and deep the Earth itself is hot.</div>
<h4 style="text-align: justify;">
Blowout preventer (BOP)</h4>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
BOP is the equipment installed at the surface where drill strings goes in it. The blowout preventer as the name itself is explanatory is used to stop the blowout. The BOP is 1, 2 or 3 stages preventer which is composed or either annulus ram and shear rams, annulus ram, shear rams or upper pipe ram or annulus ram, shear rams, upper pipe ram and lower pipe ram. The BOP is used when the formation pressure exceeds the hydrostatic pressure or else the fluid from the formation will enters the well which is termed as kick. When the kick reaches the surface it will blowout everything within and the rig itself so in order to stop that BOP is installed so that it can stop the pressure from coming out the hole.<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgttOyieip3iQYEalcglJDt2K0HRTG_1jZ3tetQwDfD9g3iZrwlEPdhR0aHgIhJRKn0G1T-P2ehfSfia-AT3lSSP3T5JnP7yPHMtakYvH1m0lskRCpQMY_7CXocXqlvCELoFMPif-0lt_0d/s1600/8a.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1600" data-original-width="1200" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgttOyieip3iQYEalcglJDt2K0HRTG_1jZ3tetQwDfD9g3iZrwlEPdhR0aHgIhJRKn0G1T-P2ehfSfia-AT3lSSP3T5JnP7yPHMtakYvH1m0lskRCpQMY_7CXocXqlvCELoFMPif-0lt_0d/s320/8a.jpg" width="240" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">BOP</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br /></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8289051954418709326.post-27253664652489843392017-08-25T01:56:00.001+05:002017-08-25T02:18:40.638+05:00Recorded Live-Virtual field tour of Cajon, California and the San Andreas Fault<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue", arial, helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Recorded Live-Virtual field tour of Cajon, California and the San Andreas Fault:</span><br />
<br />
<iframe allowfullscreen="true" allowtransparency="true" frameborder="0" height="420" scrolling="no" src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/video.php?href=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2Fgeologylearn%2Fvideos%2F915774608587024%2F&show_text=1&width=560" style="border: none; overflow: hidden;" width="560"></iframe><br />
<br /><br />This "Live-Virtual Field Tour" was the part of our outreach project. Please contribute and help us to help others. Read details of the project <a href="http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/p/live-virtual-field-tours.html" target="_blank">here</a>.<br />
<br />Muhammad Qasimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09422933048834961238noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8289051954418709326.post-82914636592125290842017-08-09T00:04:00.000+05:002017-08-09T00:11:18.772+05:00Live Virtual Field Tour from South Rim, Grand Canyon (August 5, 2017)<iframe allowfullscreen="true" allowtransparency="true" frameborder="0" height="401" scrolling="no" src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/video.php?href=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2Fgeologylearn%2Fvideos%2F916154088549076%2F&show_text=1&width=560" style="border: none; overflow: hidden;" width="560"></iframe>Muhammad Qasimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09422933048834961238noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8289051954418709326.post-31882481046173117282017-07-27T00:11:00.000+05:002017-08-03T13:43:49.192+05:00"Why I left Electrical Engineering and choose Geology?" with Rana Faizan <div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%; text-align: justify;">About author: Rana Faizan is currently in
his third year of under graduation in Applied Geology at Institute of Geology
at University of the Punjab in Lahore, Pakistan. He is interested in Petroleum
Geology, Structural Geology, Sedimentology and Tectonics.</span><span style="text-align: justify;"> <br /> </span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When I was studying in the 8<sup>th</sup> grade, my
father had a wish to make me an Electrical Engineer. Honestly speaking at that time I have no idea about my
future goals and even I didn’t knew anything about Electrical Engineering. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">One day I was in my class, my teacher gave us a
lecture on future planning which really inspired me to think about future aims.
This was the first time I started thinking about my future goals. I reached
home and asked my father about this concern. He advised me to choose Electrical
Engineering in future and told me that this is his dream about me. At that time,
I was not familiar with the Geology. Days were passed and I completed my 10<sup>th</sup>
grade exams with good percentage and took admission in 11<sup>th</sup> grade (pre-engineering),
and I started study hard to fulfill my parent’s dream. <br /><br /><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Then a day come, my father was sharing his
university life experiences with me and this was the first time I heard about
Geology because his hostel mates were Geology students. My father told me about
the geology field work experience that his friends shared with him. And his
friend is currently settled in Canada and working as a Geologist. He told me
about some more people and some of them are now my professors. <br /><br /><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">These all things sums up and gave me inspiration about
geology, I searched about geology on internet and I found it an interesting
field as geologists ruin tourism in their daily life. </span><span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">They
can work in natural resource companies, environmental consulting companies,
government agencies, non-profit organizations, and universities. Many
geologists do field work at least part of the time. Others spend their time in
laboratories, classrooms or offices. All geologists prepare reports, do
calculations and use computers. I found that geology is a practical and
professional field, all sciences and engineering required geology work in some
disciplines. Another thing is the study of mountains, different rocks,
minerals, structures and more over their observations in field with naked eye is
so interesting. Moreover thin section study and geological mapping was another
cause that inspired me to pursue my career in this field.<br /><br /><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">Due
to all these things, I mentally prepared myself to choose geology in future but
my father wanted me to become an engineer. <br /><br /><span style="font-size: 21.3333px;">After few months, I completed my 12</span><sup>th</sup><span style="font-size: 21.3333px;"> grade with good percentage and I applied for electrical engineering as per my father’s wish. And I also applied for geology as per my wish. Unfortunately, I didn’t get admission in any geology institute and get admission in electrical engineering. My parents were very happy because their wish was near to fulfill at that time but I was not so happy because I wanted admission in geology. Then unwillingly, I have to study the electrical engineering. This was little bit interesting subject for me especially circuits. I liked working on C++ programming. I completed my first semester with good CGPA and got 2</span><sup>nd</sup><span style="font-size: 21.3333px;"> position but still I wasn’t satisfied in this field. </span><br style="font-size: 21.3333px;" /><br style="font-size: 21.3333px;" /><span style="font-size: 21.3333px;">Next year, when I was studying 2</span><sup>nd</sup><span style="font-size: 21.3333px;"> semester in engineering, the admissions in geology get opened and again I tried to get admission in this field but my parents, relatives and friends even my engineering professors advised me that I should not leave this field (engineering) now because that decision would effected my future and one year of my study would be wasted. I listened to my heart voice and applied for admission and I was surprised to know that I got admission in geology. I left engineering and join geology field. My friends and professors of engineering institute asked me again not to leave this field. I still remembered, I simply told them that I don’t want high marks, I want to fulfil my interests so that I can give my 100% in that work. I thought what if I done electrical engineering with good percentages and get job. But what if I am not satisfied with my decision then what is the benefit of that job? Geology may not give me highly paid jobs easily as I could find in electrical engineering but I would definitely find peace and satisfaction in geology.</span><br style="font-size: 21.3333px;" /><br style="font-size: 21.3333px;" /><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirVx11ZO4DEd8NFAylWUH88nn4TaFHGog_MYW2nbYgAFA6uHTkTLBueAgzj04SJOYYP7GI0pZ3Cgaf8GQNx4nHzljwA-nRxcOoODOMHawMrdug4OjAup_Yav-Ilzj2PvTSz1t7s8M6fbs4/s1600/20464644_847734195382015_1011745254_n.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="784" data-original-width="960" height="521" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirVx11ZO4DEd8NFAylWUH88nn4TaFHGog_MYW2nbYgAFA6uHTkTLBueAgzj04SJOYYP7GI0pZ3Cgaf8GQNx4nHzljwA-nRxcOoODOMHawMrdug4OjAup_Yav-Ilzj2PvTSz1t7s8M6fbs4/s640/20464644_847734195382015_1011745254_n.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Me (left) discussing geological map of Pakistan with my class mate (right).<br />
Photo © Rana Faizan </td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEja8aceMenm8J9un3DdfIwA-KBOnXw4peeLenLwU6NU5g_jvAphnVTMMDT9-o9Mp0wmJaPayh0eOrIMi6rzptyHumEwFX9kAuwBVOtTcVyB65_O7brFZgV40UFegjxJHLIzI2rX3H9Mocrs/s1600/20428279_847734225382012_596077159_n.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="724" data-original-width="960" height="481" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEja8aceMenm8J9un3DdfIwA-KBOnXw4peeLenLwU6NU5g_jvAphnVTMMDT9-o9Mp0wmJaPayh0eOrIMi6rzptyHumEwFX9kAuwBVOtTcVyB65_O7brFZgV40UFegjxJHLIzI2rX3H9Mocrs/s640/20428279_847734225382012_596077159_n.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Describing about Salt Range (Sub-Himalayas) model<br />
Photo © Rana Faizan </td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">Now,
I’m studying geology and I am fully satisfied with my decision. I have
completed my two and half years of bachelor’s degree with three field works and
I have learnt many things about geology. I found all things as same as I
imagined, when I was in 12<sup>th</sup> grade. This was my dream that one day I
will become a geologist and will study from the same institute from my father’s
friends have studied. Everyone has its own interest. Some like engineering,
some like medical and some go for other. My purpose here is not to degrade anyone
especially electrical engineering students, no doubt it is also a good field as
technology is becoming a need of everyone. So, I have an advice for everyone,
always listen to your own decisions and do not bother what other say.<br /><br /><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4MoQcJz5sDzO0o5C8HX7eHpyU7fN_25T58mFAZi0vmIXbWOLEe8mPoCKJAmcxJ8EkAq2sDXUGNb4n9WFk1RmkOV5RFh2oGA3UsGaxAwuRqmbOLvJT3Vzenx1ZOxLaC_7iyoRUH7obdAO5/s1600/20403682_847734408715327_2037042876_n.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="960" data-original-width="725" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4MoQcJz5sDzO0o5C8HX7eHpyU7fN_25T58mFAZi0vmIXbWOLEe8mPoCKJAmcxJ8EkAq2sDXUGNb4n9WFk1RmkOV5RFh2oGA3UsGaxAwuRqmbOLvJT3Vzenx1ZOxLaC_7iyoRUH7obdAO5/s400/20403682_847734408715327_2037042876_n.jpg" width="301" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Selfie at Harno River, Abbottabad, Pakistan.<br />
Photo © Rana Faizan </td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEheNrLF_OOcVmYVzEmjQvtITPm8E_Qgj_6e2Z9QLF3qasrP3Es7qmHS3iVmy8CsSa3By5PTDOq_iXqS9po4p_zHh7uIq3vqYl6kpkYOjRzddh7eBkdrqJYL3pHknhkfGuznM6wP1imjctdO/s1600/20403813_847734385381996_1705146622_n.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="717" data-original-width="960" height="298" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEheNrLF_OOcVmYVzEmjQvtITPm8E_Qgj_6e2Z9QLF3qasrP3Es7qmHS3iVmy8CsSa3By5PTDOq_iXqS9po4p_zHh7uIq3vqYl6kpkYOjRzddh7eBkdrqJYL3pHknhkfGuznM6wP1imjctdO/s400/20403813_847734385381996_1705146622_n.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Had a rainy fieldwork at Indus River, Pakistan<br />
Photo © Rana Faizan </td></tr>
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">I still
remember a quote:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: white; color: #c00000; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> "<em><span style="font-style: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Think<b> </b>100<b> </b>times<b>
</b>before</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>you<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em><span style="font-style: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">take a decision</span></em>, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="background: white; color: #c00000; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">But once that<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><em><span style="font-style: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">decision</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>is taken, stand by it as one
man."</span><span style="background: white; color: #c00000; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 22.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />We
have a lot of hidden potential that we don’t know. And if we know then we don’t
utilize it because we fear what people would say. More than that there is our
own voice shouting inside that you can do this. What if we stop listening to
those voices and listen only to our heart. </span><span style="background: white; color: #c00000; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 22.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">I
have observed many geological things during field work and some pictures below
are describing about the beauty of geology. I have many pictures related to
rocks, minerals, structures and other features. Some beautiful pictures are given
below:</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiTjPpoIC2X7e8GSSdS3KQ8MbxupETApnv6qzaByIZxNKsl-d-UUQlrHwtzVim0J_89DyJAG0r6gIEec0cxU6YTSbaI-FLIxMhpObCl1h3q6ZX8Zu-qHEctBq2R-sjx1glpayH2eHutbdFS/s1600/20400910_847734365381998_1376203380_n.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="960" data-original-width="942" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiTjPpoIC2X7e8GSSdS3KQ8MbxupETApnv6qzaByIZxNKsl-d-UUQlrHwtzVim0J_89DyJAG0r6gIEec0cxU6YTSbaI-FLIxMhpObCl1h3q6ZX8Zu-qHEctBq2R-sjx1glpayH2eHutbdFS/s400/20400910_847734365381998_1376203380_n.jpg" width="392" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Hammering slates<br />
Photo © Rana Faizan </td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi6IYkDC7D8xLAaWXQXHxP34i5DDLdGjDC1WAG1lE8HSABUrygcpMr7wENsxvPWMPufPBVPgg72utJsBI6NN-ojzkTeQqN3mLX9Gl0iBImM2dcC0-A65RI3ICq0LASvnYfFujQk7sY-a1O4/s1600/20401124_847734235382011_1739047999_n.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="711" data-original-width="960" height="474" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi6IYkDC7D8xLAaWXQXHxP34i5DDLdGjDC1WAG1lE8HSABUrygcpMr7wENsxvPWMPufPBVPgg72utJsBI6NN-ojzkTeQqN3mLX9Gl0iBImM2dcC0-A65RI3ICq0LASvnYfFujQk7sY-a1O4/s640/20401124_847734235382011_1739047999_n.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Plunging anticline fold observed during fieldwork.<br />
Photo © Rana Faizan<br />
<br />
<br /></td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDgtLxTFymzhcGcZMKpohDI5vtORIIHCwNLxHsNLC8EkXri3YQhI05vI4oeWj_fnKAVqF_SCvQsQNMCu-9ktTdZID5dGzh8NbycQZAc82RUZ24i5S9rKTG92zlELzk2GBk92D9lbUDynjh/s1600/20427822_847734462048655_1072401685_n.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="960" data-original-width="730" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDgtLxTFymzhcGcZMKpohDI5vtORIIHCwNLxHsNLC8EkXri3YQhI05vI4oeWj_fnKAVqF_SCvQsQNMCu-9ktTdZID5dGzh8NbycQZAc82RUZ24i5S9rKTG92zlELzk2GBk92D9lbUDynjh/s640/20427822_847734462048655_1072401685_n.jpg" width="486" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Enjoying fieldwork after mapping sedimentary area<br />
Photo © Rana Faizan </td></tr>
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<br />Note: This article is originally written and contributed by Rana Faizan. You can also contribute your article by sending us at geologylearn@gmail.com. We would love to share your field experiences with our readers. See guidelines <a href="http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/p/contribution-to-lg.html" target="_blank">here</a>.</span></div>
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /><br /><br /><br /><o:p></o:p></span></div>
Muhammad Qasimhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09422933048834961238noreply@blogger.com